Coal-whipping.

on some of the Scottish coasts, and coalseys in the n.e. of England. This fish forms an important part of the food of the Orkney and Shetland islanders, and of the inhabitants of some of the Hebrides. Vast numbers of the fry are sometimes caught by means of blankets in the mouths of streams in the Hebrides. The liver of the coal-fish abounds in oil, which is used for lamps.

COALITION, in politics, is applied to the union of two parties, or, as it generally happens, portions of parties, not of the same opinion, who yet agree to sink their differences, and act in common. Pitt the elder, when he took office in 1757, coalesced with the whig aristocracy represented by the duke of Newcastle. The ministry always spoken of, however, as the great C. was formed in 1782, when Fox, the leader of the reformers, took office along with lord North, the leader of the opposite party. When lord Derby's ministry resigned in 1853, there was a short C. between the Whig party, under lord John Russell, and the more moderate of the conservative party, under lord

Aberdeen.

COAL-SUPPLY. Referring to CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM and COAL for various details connected with the localities of coal-beds, the diversity of qualities, and the modes of working, we shall treat here of a question which has recently been accepted as one of great importance to the welfare of the nation-viz.: the amount of available supply. All the coal now existing was formed untold ages ago, when the conditions of temperature and moisture on the earth's surface were different from those now prevailing. Coal is not a growth annually renewable, but an accumulation which we are gradually spending. We are living, not on the interest of our coal, but on the capital. This is a truth which scientific men have recognized for some time past; but statesmen and manufacturers, mine-owners and merchants, have paid singularly little attention to the subject, under the supposition that the existing stock will last for so great a period as to relieve us from all anxiety on the matter. John Williams in 1789, sir John Sinclair in the Statistical Account of Scotland, Robert Bold in 1812, and Dr. Buckland in 1830, were almost the only writers, until recently, who cautioned England that her supply of coal will not last forever. Two volumes on the Coal Question, however, by Mr. Hull and Mr. Jevons respectively, effectually roused public attention to the matter.

At the Newcastle meeting of the British association in 1864, sir W. G. Armstrong, as chairman, forcibly urged the subject on the attention of scientific and practical men. He said: Contemplating the rate at which we are expending those seams of coal which yield the best qualities of fuel, and can be worked at the least expense, we shall find much cause for anxiety. We have already drawn from our choicest mines a far larger quantity of coal than has been raised in all other parts of the world put together; and the time is not remote when we shall have to encounter the disadvantages of increased cost of working, and diminished value of produce." He urged especially that we ought not to squander our coal as at present. We waste nearly all the smoke, heated air, and heated gases from our furnaces; we waste sadly in our open fire-places; and there is a vast quantity of small-coal recklessly burned at the pit's mouth. Various statistics as to supply and consumption had furnished sir W. G. Armstrong with his data. So widely have estimates differed as to available quantity still in store, that between 1792 and recent times, the conjectures, for Northumberland and Durham alone, varied from 200 years to 1700 years, as the period during which the whole nation could be supplied from this one coal-field; but more earnest attempts have been made in late years to arrive at approximate figures. In 1857, M. De Carral, a Prussian mining-engineer, estimated the coal-mining of that year in all countries at 125 million tons, with an average value of 78. per ton at the pit's mouth; he credited Prussia with enough unexhausted coal to supply all the world for 900 years. In 1861, Mr. Robert Hunt ascertained, by reliable mineral statistics, that Great Britain raised 86 million tons in the year; that the quantity was increasing by nearly 3 million tons every year; and that we were working our mines at thrice the rate which had been in force 20 years before. These facts had much influence in drawing the attention of public men to the subject. The produce of Great Britain in 1861 was from 3,052 collieries; and the different districts joined in the supply as follows: Durham and Northumberland, 19 million tons; Lancashire, 12; Yorkshire, 9; Staffordshire and Worcestershire, 7; South Wales, 7; Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, 5; Scotland, 11; all other districts, 16-amounting to a total of 86 million tons. M. Burat, in his Situation de l'Industrie Houillère en 1864, estimated the coal-produce of the world at 141 million tons, of which he credited Great Britain with about four-sevenths. In the same year, sir W. G. Armstrong, taking Mr. Hull and Mr. Hunt as his authorities, estimated the available stock of coal in the United Kingdom at 80,000 million tons, rejecting all seams below 4,000 ft. as too deep to work, and all less than 2 ft. thick as too thin to work. Taking 1864 as a standard of consumption, it would last 930 years; but at the rate of increase of recent years, it would only last 212 years, because this rate would be geometrical and not merely arithmetical in its progression.

In the year 1866, the question came into the arena of the British parliament. On April 17, during a discussion in the house of commons on the malt-tax, Mr. J. Stuart Mill dwelt on the fact that coal is one of our greatest sources of national wealth; and he accepted as trustworthy the calculations of Mr. Jevons-that in three or four generations we shall have scarcely any usable coal at a less depth than 4,000 ft., a depth which

87

Coal-whipping.
This speech

In

will either be unworkable, or workable only at a greatly increased cost. made a great impression on the house; and the government, a few days afterwards, undertook to ascertain what facts the officers of the geological survey possessed on the subject. On May 3, the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Gladstone, made his financial statement for the year, in which he accepted Mr. Mill's views, based as they were on the opinions of sir Roderick Murchison, sir John Herschel, sir W. G. Armstrong, Dr. Percy, Mr. Hull, Mr. Jevons, and other authorities. He assented to the probability that by the year 1970, if matters go on at their present rate, we shall have no coal left. "of all attempts to limit by law the consump "I disbelieve and disapprove," he added, tion of coal. In vain would it be to think of stopping the consumption of coal in this country; in vain would it be to think of diminishing that consumption by the imposi tion of a tax; and it would be more vain still to think of prohibiting its exportation.' In other words, the remedy, if any, can not be by legislation. The question was brought to a decisive point on June 12, when Mr. Hussey Vivian moved an address to the crown, praying for the appointment of a royal commission to investigate the whole matter. an elaborate speech, he stated his reasons for believing that the forebodings of Mr. Hull and Mr. Jevons are too gloomy-that advancing science will enable miners to contend against the temperature and pressure of deeper mines than have hitherto been thought practicable; that we shall be better able than ever to ventilate and drain the deep workings; that the area of coal workable even with our present means is larger than has been estimated; that the magnesian limestone and new red sandstone beds are likely to afford an opening for new stores of coal quite incalculable in amount; that the theory of an increase of consumption in a geometrical ratio is not tenable; and that we shall probably economize consumption in future years by the adoption of new processes, new furnaces, new stove-grates, smoke-consuming apparatus, and the utilization of waste heat and gases. Although entertaining these favorable views, he nevertheless suggested official inquiry. The government assented; and a royal commission, comprising the duke of Argyle, sir Roderick Murchison, sir W. G. Armstrong, Mr. Vivian, Mr. Prestwich, Dr. Percy, Mr. Jukes, Mr. Robert Hunt, and several other experienced men, was appointed in July, 1866.

The coal commissioners gradually collected a large body of information concerning the quantity of coal raised annually in the United Kingdom; the probable future rate of increase; the quantity still remaining at available depths underground; and the best means of economizing coal in future. They obtained a great mass of evidence, which was published in 1871, with maps, plans, and diagrams. They reported that the deepest of our mines are about 2,000 ft., but that 4,000 ft. might possibly be worked with improved lifting and ventilating appliances. They estimated the coal of the United Kingdom, at all depths down to 4,000 ft., at 90,207 million tons-viz., 46,000 millions in England; 34,000 millions in Wales; 10,000 millions in Scotland, and a mere trifle in Ireland. The largest single coal-field they found to be that of South Wales, 32,000 million tons. Many geologists believe that coal underlies the new red sandstone and per. mian formations, and that an additional quantity of 56,000 million tons might possibly Dr. Edward Hull's Coal Fields of Great Britain (4th ed. be obtainable from this source. 1881), corrects these estimates down to 1880 as follows: in England and Wales, 69.216 millions of tons; in Scotland, 9643; in Ireland, 150; total, 79,009 millions of tons. According to Professor Ramsay, over 56,000 millions of tons are available; making the total amount, 136,000 millions of tons of visible and concealed coal.

Of 154,000,000 tons raised in 1881, against 123,000,000 in 1872, about 140,000,000 were Dr. H. thinks the supply will last 1,000 years instead retained for home consumption. of 300, as formerly supposed. Quicklime is now much used instead of explosives; lessening the danger, blasting more thoroughly, and with less waste and expense. Consequent on the revelations concerning our (future) coal-famine, other nations have made renewed investigations respecting their own reserve deposits.

COAL-TAR. See GAS-TAR.

COAL-WHIPPING, the name given to a mode of unloading coal from vessels at anchor in the Thames. About 2,000,000 tons of coal are annually transferred from vessels in the river to barges, which convey them to the wharves. The operation is called coalwhipping, and the men, coal-whippers-names, the origin of which does not seem to be known. The men work in gangs of nine-a basket-man and eight others. Some of them shovel the coal from the hold of the ship into baskets or boxes; some haul up the boxes by ropes and pulleys; and some empty the contents into the barges.

This is all the operation-a mere example of muscular labor of the coarsest kind. It would not have called for notice in this work, had not legislative interference given a factitious importance to it. Some years ago, when the number of these men was about 2,000, public-house keepers got into the habit of acting as middlemen, a position which gave them the power of compelling the men to spend nearly all their earnings in drink. The trade fell into such a state, that the men were virtually slaves to the publicans. They asked for the interference of the legislature; and this was granted in 1843. act was passed expressly for these 2,000 coal-whippers. A coal-whippers' board was formed, comprising members named by the board of trade, others named by the corporation of London, and one by the shipowners' society. This board assumed the functions

An

Coast.

of a middleman or master coal-whipper; contracted for the whipping of ships of coal, and employed the men. No one but men registered on the books of the board was allowed to work on the Thames as a coal-whipper, with the exception of the crews of the ships and the servants of the coal-owners. This exceptionally-protected trade was maintained on the same basis by other acts passed in 1846 and 1851. In 1856, however, a further renewal was refused; and a committee of the house of lords, in 1857, while sympathizing with the men, declined to recommend any further special legislation for them. The coal-owners agreed with the board of trade to maintain a whipping office, to give the men a refuge from the publicans, but without interfering with the liberty of coal-shippers to employ whom they pleased; and this plan has since been acted on. The office is at the coal exchange, with a men's rendezvous near Ratcliff. The necessity for coalwhippers has been much lessened of late years by the use of a floating derrick in the Thames, by which the contents of a coal-ship can be transferred to the barges in a few hours by steam-power.

COAM'INGS, in a ship, are small frame-works on the deck, to prevent sea and rain water from running down the hatchways, ladder-ways, and scuttles.

COAN, TITUS, D.D., b. Coun., 1801; ordained a Congregational minister in Boston in 1833, and in that year made a trip of exploration to Patagonia, where he wished to establish a mission. Circumstances being unfavorable, he returned, but soon afterwards he went to the Sandwich islands and was stationed as a missionary at Hilo. Besides his work as a missionary Dr. C. published in the American Journal of Science and elsewhere many valuable papers on scientific subjects. He d. 1883.

CÖAN'ZA, a river of Lower Guinea, western Africa, which, after a course of about 500 or 600 m., enters the Atlantic s. of St. Paul de Loando, in lat. about 9° 10' s. It is navigable for a considerable distance, but a bar at its mouth renders it inaccessible save to small vessels.

COAST-GUARD, an organization formerly intended to prevent smuggling merely, but now constituted so as to serve as a defensive force also. The old coast-guardsmen were in the employment of the customs department; they were posted along the shore at spots commanding extensive views of the beach, and were expected to be always on the look-out for smugglers. In 1856, the coast-guard was transferred to the admiralty, and under this arrangement the admiralty may, from time to time, issue orders for the augmentation of the coast-guard, not to exceed 10,000 men in all. Lands, not exceeding three acres each, may be bought by the admiralty for coast-guard stations. The coasts of the United Kingdom have been divided into 11 districts. Each district is under a navy captain, who has an iron-clad guard-ship at some port in the district. All the revenue cruisers and defense-gunboats are attached as tenders to the ships, and are manned therefrom. The able seamen, borne on the ships' books, and employed on shore in coast-guard service, are in three classes-chief boatmen, commissioned boatmen, and boatmen. They receive high sea-pay, besides 18. 4d. per day in lieu of provisions, and house-rent and medical attendance free. In war-time, all of these men may be called upon to serve as regular sailors on board ship; but their families are allowed to live rent-free during this time. The coast-guard are taught naval gunnery, gunboat exercise, and the serving of land-batteries. The guard-ships are also employed as training-ships for the navy. The whole of the coast-guard comprised, in 1879, 4,300 men, and the charge for their maintenance and that of their ships is about £500,000.

COASTING-TRADE, the commerce carried on by sea between the different ports of the same country. In Great Britain, "coastwise" is defined to mean "from any one part of the United Kingdom to any other part thereof." Vessels engaged in this commerce are subject to different rates and regulations from over-sea traders, and the masters must keep books showing that their cargoes come strictly within the definition of coasting-trade. Formerly, no goods or passengers were allowed to be carried from one port of the United Kingdom to another, except in British vessels; but this restriction was repealed in 1854, and the coasting-trade of Great Britain is now open to all the world. In other countries, the exclusive policy still prevails. The regulations under which the coasting-trade are conducted are contained in the customs consolidation act, 16 and 17 Vict. c. 107 (see M'Culloch's Commercial Dictionary).

COASTING-TRADE (ante). This trade in the United States is far more extensive than in any other country. Of the 38 states now in the union, 18 border on the Atlantic ocean and the gulf of Mexico, and two border on the Pacific, to which may be added the territory of Washington, and the enormous coast-line of the newly acquired territory of Alaska. There is an immense amount of coastwise trade, especially along the Atlantic and the gulf. In the time of the early settlements such trading was done in small shallops, sloops, and schooners, and there was very little of it. The introduction of steam-vessels made a great change, and the trade rapidly grew in importance. At the present time many hundreds of steamers and more hundreds of sailing craft are constantly plying from Maine to Texas, transferring the cotton, sugar, and rice of the southern to northern, and the lumber, grain, and manufactured goods of the northern to southern markets. The swift propeller brings the oranges and strawberries of Florida

Coast.

to Maine, and takes back the ice of the Penobscot. In summer, these coasting steamers' do a large share of the passenger as well as trade traffic. The thoroughness of the coast survey, and the recent introduction of the weather service whereby mariners are duly forewarned of danger, have done much to prevent the disasters which were common not long ago, and even the dreaded cape Hatteras has lost much of its terror.

COAST-LINE, the ocean boundary of any continent, island, or section of land. Such lines vary in length with the amount of indentation by gulfs and bays. Europe has nearly 20,000 m. of coast-line; Africa, 15,000; Asia, 30,000; North America, 23,000, and South America, 15,000.

COAST RANGE, or COAST MOUNTAINS, in California, running in a course almost parallel with the ocean from near the boundary of Oregon into Lower California. The range has a width of 30 to 40 m., and has numerous spurs which usually run toward the ocean. Between these are well-watered and exceedingly fertile valleys. The chief peaks of the range are San Bernardino, 11,600 ft.; Helena, 3,700. The principal passes are from 686 to 3,780 ft. above sea level. The mountains are usually rocky and steep. Those near the sea are covered with timber, while those far inland are nearly bare.

COAST SURVEY, a scientific department of the government of the United States, established for the purpose of making geodetic and hydrographic surveys to determine the coast-line, and of making charts of harbors and tide-waters, and of the bottom of the ocean along the coast. It extends its observations to all parts of the globe, as may be thought serviceable to navigation; and it makes such other observations (as of the tides and currents, and of the nature of the sea and river bottoms) as will permit calculations of changes to be expected in the future. Its office is also to indicate positions for the erection of light-houses and all other useful signals, and to make various meteorological and other observations. The inception of the organization was contemplated in the message of president Jefferson to congress in 1807. An act was passed authorizing him to cause a survey of the coasts of the United States, including islands, shoals, and places of anchorage within 20 leagues of the shore, and of St. George's bank; and to take soundings and observations upon currents beyond such limits, to the gulf stream. This act appropriated $50,000 for the object. Plans were requested from scientific men, and that proposed by Mr. F. R. Hassler, a native of Switzerland, was adopted. It was, in the first place, to determine the positions of certain prominent points of the coast by astronomical observations, and to connect them by trigonometrical lines from which to make a nautical survey; but nothing was done till 1811, when he went to Europe to obtain instruments and material for the work. He was, however, detained till the close of the war with Great Britain. On his return he was appointed superintendent of the coast survey, but did not begin active labors till 1817, when, in the vicinity of New York, he measured a base-line west of the Palisades on the Hudson, for the triangulation of New York harbor; but the work was not extended beyond this, for want of funds, except that a few detached surveys were made by the navy, and by the topographical engineers of the army. An interval of ten years elapsed, and in 1832, after a small appropriation had been made by congress, Mr. Hassler resumed the active duties of his office, and was authorized to employ, in addition to the naval and army officers designated for that service, such astronomers and other persons as he might deem necessary. He continued to superintend the survey till his death, in 1843. The work which he accomplished was to extend the survey at New York as far eastward as Point Judith, R. I., and as far s. as cape Henlopen, Del. The triangulation extended over an area of 9,000 sq.m., determining the positions of about 1200 stations, to be used in the delineation of about 1600 m. of shore line. Mr. Hassler was succeeded by prof. A. D. Bache. In 1845, surveys were begun on the coasts of Virginia and North Carolina, and during the next two years they were extended to Georgia and the gulf states, and afterwards to the Florida reefs and keys. Many observations on the gulf stream were taken during the time of the superintendency of prof. Bache, and extended observations were made upon the tides and currents in various rivers, for the purpose of deducing the laws by which they are governed. The magnetic force and direction in parts of the earth included in the survey were observed, and various meteorological observations were taken for the purpose of investigating the laws of storms. The civil war interrupted the operations of the survey along the coast of the southern states, but many of the coast-survey officers were with the United States vessels, and their knowledge was of the utmost importance in naval operations. Two years after the close of the war, prof. Bache died (1867), and prof. Benjamin Pierce, of Harvard university, was appointed his successor. Since then a more comprehensive system has been prosecuted, extending across the continent; and the Pacific coast has been the subject of extended triangulation, although still far from complete; and the hydrographic survey has been actively carried on. See HYDROGRAPHY, GEODESY, and TRIANGULATION.

COAST VOLUNTEERS, or ROYAL NAVAL COAST VOLUNTEERS, was a corps organized for the special defense of the coasts of the United Kingdom, separate from, but in connection with the coast-guard (q.v.). By an act of parliament passed in 1853, the admiralty was empowered to raise a number, not exceeding 10,000, of C. V., to consist of sea-faring men and others, to be entered for five years' service, and to be exercised 28 days in each year, either on shipboard or on shore; but not to be sent more

than 50 leagues from the coasts of the United Kingdom, unless in cases of emergency, when the distance might be extended to 100 leagues. One year's active service entitled them to discharge in ordinary cases; but in emergencies, they might be called out a second year on receipt of higher pay. Their pay, allowance, and rank during exercise and active service was the same as able seamen's. The bounty to be paid on entering, and the arrangements for arms, clothing, and accoutrements, were left for the admiralty to settle from time to time. An act passed in 1875 invested the com-. mand of the C. V. in the coast-guard, the officers of which were to superintend the training and exercising. As a matter of fact, the force was a very small one (600), and a failure; and was ultimately abolished.

COAT OF ARMS, in the military trappings of the middle ages, held the place of the paludamentum of the ancient Roman captains. It was a coat worn by princes and great barons over their armor, and descended to the knee. It was made of cloth of gold or silver, of fur or of velvet, and bore armorial insignia. The "coat of arms, as understood by heraldry in the present day, is nothing more than a relic of the ancient armorial insignia, divested of the coat on which it used to be embroidered. See SHIELD, HERALDRY.

COATBRIDGE, a rising and prosperous t. of Scotland, in the parish of Old Monkland, about 8 m. directly e. of Glasgow, on the Monkland canal and Caledonian railway. The town is straggling, has some good houses, and a number of small villages or suburbs on its outskirts. There are six churches besides the parish church, two academies, and several other schools, banks, etc. The town is in the center of a mineral district, is surrounded by about 50 smelting-furnaces, and contains 8 malleable-iron works, one tin-work (the only one in Scotland), and several other works connected with the iron manufacture. C., owing to the great increase in the iron trade, has grown very rapidly in size and prosperity within the last 30 years. Pop. '41, 1599; '51, 8,564; '61, 10,501; '81, 17,500; and still rapidly increasing.

COATI, or COATI-MONDI (nasua), a genus of quadrupeds of the family ursida (the bear family); by some naturalists.referred to viverrida (the civet family), although their plantigrade character allies them rather to the former. They are most nearly allied to the raccoons, and, like them, are exclusively American. They are chiefly remarkable for the elongation of the snout, which is a sort of flexible proboscis, and is turned about in search of food, and employed in rooting up the earth to obtain worms and insects. They are often domesticated in South America, and are very affectionate, active, troublesome, and amusing. See illus., DEER, ETC., p. 686, fig. 3.

COAT OF MAIL, in the armor of the middle ages, was a suit made of metal scales or rings, linked one within another. See ARMOR.

COATZACOAL CO, a river of Mexico rising in the Sierra Madre, flowing partially across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and emptying into the gulf of Mexico. This river, and the region around, have been several times explored with the view of constructing a canal across the isthmus from the gulf to the Pacific, the river being considered an important element in the work.

COBALT (from Cobalus, a malicious sprite or gnome) is a metal of no use in the arts and manufactures, but which forms compounds of commercial importance. C. (symbol Co) is found naturally in combination with arsenic, iron, and nickel, as speiss C., (CoNiFe)As,; in combination with arsenic, iron, and sulphur, as C. glance, the arsenide and sulphide of C. (CoFe)(ASS),, in ores of nickel (q. v.); and in the metallic state, it is found in meteoric stones or aerolites (q.v.). The metal has been obtained in laboratory experiments, and presents a gray color with a reddish tinge, is highly magnetic, and is as hard and infusible as iron. It is a brittle metal, and forms no alloys of commercial use. The protoxide of C. (COO) is employed in painting on porcelain, for producing a rich blue color. Zaffre is the impure oxide obtained by partially mixing C. ore with two or three times its weight of fine sand. Smalt is the term applied to a deep blue glass, which owes its color to the presence of a silicate of C., and which, when reduced to a very fine powder, is employed occasionally by laundresses to correct the yellow color of newly washed linen, and by paper-makers as a blue pigment for staining writing-paper. Smalt is also used in the production of the blue colors in porcelain, pottery glass, encaustic tiles, fresco-painting, etc., and forms the principal ingredient in old Sevres blue, Thenard's blue, turquoise blue, and variegated blue. See BLUE. A compound containing the oxides of C. and zinc is of a beautiful green color, and is known as Rinman's green. The chloride of C., dissolved in much water, may be employed as a sympathetic ink. In dilute solutions, it is of a faint pink color, which is not observable when it is used for writing upon paper; but when heated before the fire, it loses water, and becomes blue, and the writing is then capable of being read. On allowing the paper thereafter to lie in a damp place, or exposing it to the vapor of steam from a kettle, water is again absorbed, and the writing returns to its invisible state. The addition of a little perchloride of iron to the ink, makes the writing appear green; a solution of zinc imparts a red tint; and a salt of copper, a yellow shade.

COBAN', a t. of Central America, Guatemala, in the dep. of Vera Paz, in a fertile valley on the Rio Dolce, 55 m. n. of the town of Guatemala. The inhabitants are nearly