and hence the notion that this flower turns on its stalk as the sun moves along the sky, always presenting its full face to that luminary.

CNEPH, the name under which the Egyptians adore the creator of the world.

CNI'DUS, or GNIDOS, a city on the promontory of Triopion (now cape Krio), in Caria, in Asia Minor, a Lacedæmonian colony, and one of the six cities of the Doric league. C. (according to Strabo) had two ports, one of which could be closed. In front of what was the town, lies a lofty island, about 600 yards long, which was connected with the mainland by a causeway (now a sandy isthmus). The southern port was formed by two moles, carried into the sea to the depth of nearly 100 ft., one of which is nearly perfect at the present day. The city was famous for several temples of Venus, who was therefore sometimes called the Cnidian goddess. One of these temples contained the famous statue of the naked Venus by Praxiteles. It was of Parian marble, and so beautiful, that Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, offered, in return for this masterpiece of Grecian sculpture, to pay the entire debt of the city, which was very large. The Cnidians, in the excess of their devotion to art, refused. During the wars in ancient times, C. was often mercilessly plundered. The site of the city is "covered with ruins."

CNOSSUS, or GNOSSUS, a city of Crete on the n. side of the island, 3 m. from the coast, said to have been founded by Minos, a traditional king of the island. Tradition says that Jupiter was born, married, and buried near Cnossus; and it is also said to have been the site of the labyrinth in which the Minotaur was confined. This fable may have arisen from the many intricate caverns in the region. The inhabitants were Dorians, with Dorian manners, customs, and political institutions. With the other parts of the islands it finally became a Roman colony. Among its great men were Enesidimus, the skeptic philosopher, and Chersiphron, the architect of the temple of Diana at Ephesus.

COACH is a general name for a vehicle drawn by horses, designed for the conveyance of passengers, as distinguished from a wagon or cart, for the conveyance of goods. Coaches or inclosed carriages, drawn on wheels, and intended for passengers, were inventions which have been claimed by Hungary, England, Italy, France, Spain, and Germany. The name is derived by Wedgwood from Fr. coucher, to lie, which becomes in Dutch koetsen, whence koetse or koets-wagen, a litter or carriage in which you may recline. The earliest record found by Beckmann relates to about the year 1280, when Charles of Anjou entered Naples, and his queen rode in a caretta-apparently a small but highly decorated car, from which the modern charet or chariot was derived, as well as other vehicles named chares and chariettes. It is believed that most of these vehicles had broad wheels, the only form suited for the wretched roads of those ages; and it is certain that all those of early date were open overhead. Many of the coaches used by the continental princes and nobles in the 16th c. were closed only to this extent that they had canopies supported by ornamental pillars, and curtains of cloth, silk, or leather, which could be drawn easily aside. A glass C., or C. with glass windows, is specially mentioned as being used by an infanta of Spain in 1631. The traces of the coaches were at first made of rope; those only belonging to the highest personages were made of leather. It is believed to have been in the time of Louis XIV. that coaches were first suspended by leathern straps, in order to insure ease of motion.

The first C. ever seen in England is said to have been one made in 1555 by Walter Rippon for the earl of Rutland; and in 1564, the same builder made a showy vehicle for queen Elizabeth. Later in the reign, the royal carriages had sliding panels, so that the queen could show herself to her loving subjects whenever she desired. During the closing years of Elizabeth's reign, and early in the 17th c., the use of pleasure-carriages extended rapidly in England. The coaches had first to struggle against the opposition of the boatmen on the rivers, and then against that of the sedan owners and bearers; but they gradually came into very general use. The successive steps whereby the coaches of those days gave way to the elegant vehicles of the present, need not be traced in detail, even if there were the means to do so.

The following are some of the chief kinds of pleasure-carriages: The dennet is a two-wheeled vehicle for one horse, with a jointed hood or head covered with leather, and a driving-box. The stanhope bears some resemblance to the dennet. The tilbury is in like manner a two-wheeled vehicle for one horse; but it has pliable leathern braces between the springs and the body of the vehicle, together with suspension brackets. The cabriolet belongs to the same class as the tilbury. The name cab is an abbreviation of cabriolet, but it has come to be applied to a four-wheeled vehicle. The curricle is a two-wheeled vehicle for two horses; there are no shafts, but a pole, fixed to a frame which supports the body, passes between the horses, and is suspended from a metal bar resting on their backs. The phaeton is a four-wheeled vehicle which may be drawn either by one or two horses; its front body is something like that of a dennet or stanhope, and behind this is an open seat, supported on a kind of large box. The coach is a closed four-wheeled vehicle for two or more horses, with two seats inside, and a skillfully constructed arrangement of springs to insure ease of motion. The chariot, or chaise of modern days, usually differs from the C. in having only one seat. The landau is a C. made to open occasionally. The barouche is permanently open, with only a leathern hood or head over it. The britzschka is a kind of small barouche. In addition to these, our age has witnessed the manufacture of the brougham, a miniature coach

usually for two persons, but in which four may be accommodated; and the clarence, a pair-horse carriage with movable glazed panels and hood, and for two or more persons. The manufacture of carriages, whether pleasure-vehicles or omnibuses, ranks in the highest class of mechanical labor. There is a necessity for the best materials and the best workmanship: since, owing to the severe strains and jerks to which the vehicles are subject, cheap construction is in the end unprofitable. Many different kinds of wood are employed in the construction. The body of the C. is made by one set of workmen, the under-framing by another; the former partaking more than the latter of the nature of cabinet-work. The steel-spring making is delicate work, owing to the necessity for combining strength with lightness and elasticity; and the various pieces of iron-work require careful adjustment, especially the axles. The covering of the upper part of the body of a C. with leather is one of the most difficult parts of the manufacture; one single hide is employed, the leather being worked round the corners by repeated currying while wet; and all must be rendered smooth, without even a puncture. The best coaches receive as many as 20 to 30 coats of oil-paint; and the polishing processes are numerous and carefully conducted. The carving, gilding, herald-painting, lace and fringe work, metal ornamentation, etc.—all are among the best examples of their respective handicrafts.

English carriages are considered to be the best in the world; none else combine so much strength with an equal degree of beauty. The artisans employed in this trade, especially coach-body makers and coach-spring makers, command a very high rate of

wages.

COACH-DOG, or DALMATIAN DOG, a variety of dog apparently allied to the hounds, although it is said to be deficient both in keenness of scent and in sagacity. It is often kept in stables, becomes attached to the horses, and may be seen running after carriages. Its general light color and numerous dark brown or black spots are constant characteristics; as are also its short hair, tail destitute of brush, and inoffensive disposition. Its origin is uncertain; the name' Dalmatian is probably altogether misleading; and it is supposed that it may have been brought from India, where a very similar kind of dog exists.

COACHING. See page 885.

COACH-WHIP SNAKE, a serpent of the United States, having a long narrow head, small neck, long body, and a tail like the lash of a whip. It is sometimes more than two yards long. It is not venomous, but will defend itself with great courage by twining its long folds around an enemy. It lives on birds and small animals. Found only in the states of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.

COADJU'TOR (Lat.), a fellow-worker not as principal but as second, an assistant. Technically, it is applied in ecclesiastical law to one appointed to assist a bishop, whom age or infirmity has disabled. By 52 Geo. III. c. 62, coadjutors to bishops and archbishops in Ireland are empowered to exercise all the powers of their principals except that of presenting to benefices. See EXECUTOR.

COAGULATION, the amorphous (q.v.) solidification of a liquid, or part of a liquid, as when the caseine of milk is solidified by rennet in making cheese (q.v.), or the white of an egg by boiling. The process varies in various substances. Albumen, or the white of an egg, coagulates at a temperature of 160°. Milk is coagulated or curdled by the action of rennet or by acids. The fibrin in the blood, chyle, and lymph of animals is coagulated by the separation of these fluids from the living body. See BLOOD.

COAHO'MA, a co. in n. w. Mississippi, on the Mississippi river; 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,563-11,154 colored. It is low and level, and much of the land is frequently inundated; but the soil is good, producing chiefly corn and cotton. Co. seat, Friar's point.

COAHUILA, a state of the Mexican confederation, is separated from Texas, in the United States, by the Rio Bravo del Norte, in lat. 24° to 30° n., and long. 100° to 103° east. It contains 50,000 sq.m., and (1873) 98,397 inhabitants. The capital is Saltillo, with a pop. of 8,105; there are besides the towns of Coahuila and Santa Rosa. It possesses some silver mines; but it is valuable chiefly for its pasturage. Pop. '82, 125,400.

COAT'TA. See ATELES.

COAL, in the sense of a piece of glowing fuel (and hence a piece of fuel, whether dead or alive), is a word common to all the languages of the Gothic stock (Icel. kol, Ger. kohle), and seems allied to the Lat. caleo, to be hot; as also to glow, and kiln. The different sorts of fuel are distinguished by prefixes, as charcoal, pit-coal, sea-coal; but in England, owing to the absorbing importance of mineral or pit-coal, the word C. alone has come to be used in this special signification (Ger. steinkohlen, Fr. charbon de terre). C. is one of the most important of all minerais; it consists chiefly of carbon, and is universally regarded as of vegetable origin. Its geological relations are noticed in the article CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. It generally occurs in strata or beds; it is always of a black or blackish-brown color; some of the varieties have a very considerable degree of vitreous or resinous luster, and some are very destitute of luster; some have a shell-like fracture, and some have a sort of slaty structure, and are readily broken into cubical or rhomboidal fragments. The precise characters of C. as

Coal.

a mineral species are not easily defined, and both in Britain and other countries important cases have occupied courts of law, in which this difficulty was strongly felt, as in the great Scottish lawsuit concerning the Torbanehill Mineral (q.v.). Č., indeed, is rather a commercial than a scientific term, but in a general way we may define it as a fossil fuel of black color and stony consistency, which, when heated in close vessels, is converted into coke with the escape of volatile liquids and gases. The variety known as blind C. or anthracite no doubt gives off scarcely any volatile matter, but this is because it has undergone a natural distillation through metamorphism or other cause. We may therefore divide C. into two primary divisions, namely, (1) Anthracite, which does not, and (2) Bituminous C., which does flame when kindled. Anthracite (q. v.) sometimes contains as much as 94, and if we exclude the ash, 98 per cent of carbon, and as this element decreases in amount it graduates into a bituminous coal. The term anthracite is, however, still applied to some coals which do not contain more than 80 per cent of carbon. Various synonyms, such as stone C., glance C., culm, and Welsh Ĉ., are also used to designate this substance, which is used chiefly for smelting purposes and for raising steam. It is difficult to kindle, but gives out a high heat in burning. Bituminous C. includes an almost endless number of varieties, one of the best marked being cannel or parrot C. Cannel C. is so called from burning with a bright flame like a candle, and the name parrot C. is given to it in Scotland from the crackling or chattering noise it makes when burned. That of different localities varies much in appearance, but it is most commonly dull and earthy, or with only a slight luster; some examples are, however, bright and shining. In texture it is nearly always compact, and certain beds of it admit of being polished in slabs of considerable size, which approach black marble in appearance. Of this material vases, inkstands, boxes, etc., are made. Cannel C., from the large percentage of ash which it contains, is not suitable for house fires, and is for the most part consumed in making gas, of which it yields from 8,000 to 15,000 cubic ft. per ton. When distilled at a low red-heat it yields paraffin oil. The other varieties of bituminous C. are so numerous that, as an admiralty report states, there are as many as 70 denominations of it imported into London alone. Still, among these there are three leading kinds—1. Caking C., which cakes or fuses into one mass in the fire. It breaks into small uneven fragments, and is found largely at Newcastle and some other localities. 2. Splint or hard C., occurring plentifully in Scotland, which is hard, and has a kind of slaty fracture. It is not very easily kindled, but when lighted makes a clear lasting fire. 3. Cherry or soft C., which breaks easily into small irregular cubes, has a beautiful shining luster, is readily kindled, and gives out a cheerful flame and heat. It is common in Staffordshire. Brown C. or lignite (q.v.), though inferior to true C., is nevertheless an important fuel in some countries in default of a better kind.

The use of C. does not seem to have been known to the ancients; nor is it well known at what time it began to be used for fuel. Some say that it was used by the ancient Britons; and at all events it was to some extent an article of househeld consumption during the Anglo-Saxon period as early as 852 A.D. There seems to be reason for thinking that England was the first European country in which C. was used to any considerable extent. About the end of the 13th c., it began to be employed in London, but at first only in the arts and_manufactures; and the innovation was complained of as injurious to human health. In 1316, the parliament petitioned the king, Edward II., to prohibit the use of C., and a proclamation was accordingly issued against it; but owing to the high price of wood, its use soon became general in London. It was for a long time known there as sea C., because imported by sea.

Several theories as to the mode of the origin of C. have been put forth from time to time. The one now generally believed in is that the rank and luxuriant vegetation which prevailed during the carboniferous age grew and decayed upon land but slightly raised above the sea; that by slow subsidence this thick layer of vegetable matter sunk below the water, and became gradually covered with sand, mud, and other mineral sediment; that then, by some slight upheaval of the sea bottom or other process, a land surface was once more formed, and covered with a dense mass of plants, which in course of time decayed, sank, and became overlaid with silt and sand as before. At length, thick masses of stratified matter would accumulate, producing great pressure, and this, acting along with chemical changes, would gradually mineralize the vegetable layers into coal. Some experiments made by Dr. Lindley, a few years ago, showed that of a large number of plants kept immersed in water for two years, the ferns, lycopodiums, and pines were those which had the greatest powers of resisting decay, and C. appears to be mainly composed of the substance of the ancient representatives of these three orders of plants. The interesting fact has also been lately proved by Huxley, Morris, Carruthers, and others, that in many instances the bituminous matter in C. is almost wholly formed of the spore cases and spores of plants allied to our club-mosses and ferns.

As will be seen from the following table, wood, peat, lignite or brown C., and true C. indicate by their composition the changes which vegetable matter undergoes by decay and pressure; and a table in which a considerable number of examples of each substance could be given would show how gradually these substances pass into each other:

In each of these bodies there is usually a small percentage of nitrogen, which in the above table has not been separated. In passing from wood or peat to C., the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen decreases, these substances being given off in the form of marsh-gas and carbonic acid in the process of decay.

Since the prosperity of the great national industries, as well as much of the domestic comfort, depends on the continuance of an abundant supply of cheap fuel, much anxiety has arisen in Great Britain of late years regarding the future supply and price of coal. Since the fall of 1872, a great rise has taken place in its price. This is partly owing to the unusually high rate of miners' wages which has prevailed, and partly to the fact that some of the richest and most easily worked English coal-seams are becoming exhausted. There is therefore some cause for apprehension, yet, as the following figures taken from the estimate in the report of the royal commission on C., dated 1871, will show, we have still vast supplies of fossil fuel.

Taking into account the coal which probably exists under the permian, new red sandstone, and other superincumbent strata in the United Kingdom, the C. commissioners increase their estimate of the quantity still available for use to 146,480 millions of tons. At the present rate of annual production—namely, 123,500.000 tons, this would last 1186 years. But, as may be supposed, the estimates which have been put forth regarding the probable duration of our coal-fields are very various, some authorities asserting that, owing to increase in population, and the increasing consumption of coal in manufactures, about 100 years will suffice to exhaust them. Between this and the other extreme of about 1000 years, formed on the assumption that hereafter the popula tion of the country will but slightly increase, there are innumerable conjectures and estimates. (154,000,000 tons were raised in 1881, from 3813 collieries.)

AVAILABLE COAL IN THE CHIEF BRITISH COAL-FIELDS AT DEPTHS NOT EXCEEDING 4000 FEET, AND IN SEAMS NOT LESS THAN 1 FOOT THICK.

On the continent of Europe, productive coal-fields occur in Belgium, France, various parts of northern Germany, Spain, and Russia. By far the largest in area are those of Russia, and they are known to contain many valuable beds of C., although, as yet, comparatively little has been worked. C. is also found in India, China (where the coalfields are estimated to cover 400,000 sq.m.), Japan, and the Malayan archipelago, in Australia and New Zealand, and in Africa. Turning to the new world, there is evidence of promising coal-deposits in several South American countries, but, owing to the great supply of wood in their forests, there is little temptation to work them. In Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland, there are small though valuable coal-fields; but, in the United States, enormous fields of fossil fuel are found. The entire area of these is about 200,000 sq.m., being 38 times greater than the area of the coal-fields of Great Britain. But although the coal-measures of the states are of vast extent, and contain many valuable coal-seams-a few of them 40 and even 50 ft. thick at certain places-it has been doubted whether the amount of workable C. in them is not greatly exaggerated by American writers. In proportion to the extent of the seams, the quantity of C. annually raised in the states is small, being only about 70,000,000 tons. Coal-trade. The production and sale of C., like every other important branch of industry, was long fettered with legislative regulations. At a very early period, the corporation of the city of London undertook the duty of either weighing or measuring the C. brought into the port, and by a series of statutes, commencing with 7 Ed. VI. c. 7, the mayor and aldermen of London, and the justices of the counties, were empowered to fix the price of C. to be sold by retail; and in case of refusal by the parties to sell at the prices fixed, to enter their wharves, or other places of deposit, and to cause it to be sold at the prices which they had set. In addition to the general supervision which they thus possessed, and the sums which they were empowered to exact for their

Coal-fish.

trouble, the corporations of London and other towns have exacted, and still continue to exact, dues on Ĉ. for local purposes. These were first imposed in London, in 1667, after the great fire, in order to enable the corporation to repair the ravages which it had committed; and they have been since continued as a fund for civic improvements, though, as Mr. M'Culloch has remarked, no improvement could be equal to a reduction in the price of coal. In the reign of William III., a general tax, payable to government, was laid on all sea-borne C.- -a tax which was in the highest degree unjust to places which were dependent for their supply on the coasting-trade, and oppressive to the whole country, inasmuch as it amounted to more than 50 per cent on the price paid to the owner at the pit's mouth. The tax varied in amount, not only at different periods, reaching its highest point of 98. 4d. per chaldron during the great war, but also in different parts of the country, being higher in London and the s. of England, and lower in Ireland and Wales, whilst Scotland for a considerable period was altogether exempt. The tax itself, with all its inequalities, was abolished in 1830, and there is now no tax on C. except that collected for local purposes in London, and a few other towns. The repeal, in 1845, of the duty on C. exported to foreign countries, was a measure of much more doubtful policy. The average annual quantity of C. exported from Great Britain during the three years ending 1880, was above 14,000,000 tons.-For the provisions of the recent statutes for the regulation and inspection of mines (23 and 24 Vict. c. 151, and 35 and 36 Vict. c. 76), see MINES. The circumstances in which coal-mines are regarded as a pertinent of land, and those in which they form a separate estate, are stated under MINES.

Coal-note, a particular description of promissory-note, used in the coal-trade in the port of London (3 Geo. II. c. 26, ss. 7, 8). See COAL-SUPPLY.

COAL (ante). In North America the carboniferous strata are divided by geologists into two principal groups: the lower or sub-carboniferous, which corresponds to the carboniferous limestone of Europe; and the carboniferous, which includes the millstone grit and the coal-measures. The first of these is about 5,000 ft. thick in Pennsylvania, consisting mainly of shales and sandstones; but in the Mississippi valley, in Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri, a considerable thickness of limestone is developed in this part of the series. In the former region some thin coal-seams are found, the relation between the two areas being in this respect similar to that of the carboniferous limestone in England to the coal-bearing formations of similar age in Scotland. The millstone grit forms a mass of sandstone and conglomerates from 1200 to 1400 ft. thick in e. Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly to the w., being only from 100 to 250 ft. thick in Ohio and Tennessee. In Arkansas the compact silicious rock known as novaculite, or Arkansas hone-stone, occurs in this member of the carboniferous series. The coal-measures proper occur in a very large part of the United States and Canada. First in importance is the Appalachian coal-field, covering about 60,000 sq.m. extending through parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. The maximum thickness of strata is from 2,500 to 3,000 ft.; 120 ft. near Pottsville, 62 ft. at Wilkesbarre, and 25 ft. at Pittsburg, showing a gradual diminution in a westward direction. The most persistent coal deposit is the Pittsburg seam, which is known over an area measuring 225 by 100 m., but with a thickness varying from 2 to 14 feet. The anthracite district of Pennsylvania occupies an area of about 650 sq.m. on the left bank of the Susquehanna. The strata between Pottsville and Wyoming, which belong to the lowest portion of the coal-measures, are probably about 3,000 ft. thick, but it is difficult to come at an exact estimate owing to the numerous folds and contortions. There are from 10 to 12 seams above 3 ft. in thickness; the principal one, known as the Mammoth or Baltimore vein, is 29 ft. thick at Wilkesbarre, and in some places exceeds even 60 feet. The Illinois and Missouri basin covers a considerable part of these states, as well as of Indiana, Kentucky, Iowa, Kansas, and Arkansas. Its area is estimated at 60,000 sq.m., the thickness varying from 600 ft. in Missouri to 3,000 ft. in w. Kentucky. The aggregate thickness of C. is about 70 feet. A good furnace C. is found in Indiana, the so-called block C. near Indianapolis, which, like the splint C. of Scotland and of Staffordshire, can be used in blast furnaces without coking. In Michigan a nearly circular area of coal-measures of about 5,000 sq.m. occurs in the lower peninsula between lakes Erie and Huron. The thickness is only 120 ft., and the C. is unimportant. There are also coal-bearing areas of less value in Texas and Rhode Island.

The carboniferous strata are largely developed in the e. provinces of the dominion of Canada, notably in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The lower carboniferous group here consists of about 6,000 ft. of red sandstones and green marls with thick beds of fossiliferous limestone, accompanied by gypsum. The overlying coal-measures, including the millstone grit, occupy an area estimated at 18,000 sq. miles. The whole thickness of this group in one place is about 14,750 ft., with 76 included coal-seams, together 45 ft. in thickness, which are contained in the middle division of the series. At Pictou there are six seams, together measuring 80 ft. in thickness. The coal-measures in this area approach nearer to the great coal-fields of Europe in thickness than those of the other American carboniferous districts. Rocks of the carboniferous age occur in various places on both flanks of the Rocky mountains, and in the Arctic archipelago, but they have not been explored. Lignite-bearing strata of cretaceous and tertiary age occupy considerable area in the central and western portions of North America, especially in the