for killing them; the vapor arising from a sponge dipped in this liquid is fatal to such as it sufficiently reaches; they are also killed by the heat of a brisk fire or of an oven.

CLOTHING, ARMY, is one of the departments of the British military system into which, within recent years, much change and improvement have been introduced.

In the time of Henry VIII., the soldiers' dress was principally white, with green or russet for special corps. In queen Elizabeth's reign, a sum of 18. 8d. was allowed weekly for each soldier's clothing. The uniform then consisted of a cassock of Kentish broadcloth, a canvas doublet, kersey stockings, trousers of kersey broadcloth, neat's leather shoes, and holland shirt. In 1678, an infantry soldier's dress was valued at £2 138., and a dragoon's as high as £6 108. At one time, lords-lieutenant attended to the C. of the troops, each in his own county; but the duty was afterwards transferred to the state. Captains of companies clothed the men, stopped the money out of the pay, and made a profit on the transaction. The privilege afterwards passed to the colonels of regiments. The sum provided by the state every year was for the "effective" strength of the regiment; and any vacancies put an additional sum into the pockets of the colonel. From 1746 to 1855, soldiers' pay was debited with "off-reckonings," as a means of paying for the clothes supplied to the men. Under this system, the colonel received from the state so much money annually for clothing his regiment, and then contracted with wholesale tailors for a supply on the lowest terms. In 1854, just before a change was made in the system, the colonel's profit, on the C. for a private in the line, was 158. 3d. per man.

The disasters during the early months of the Crimean war having created a national demand for reforms in military matters, a change in the mode of army C. was one of the results. By a royal warrant, dated June 21, 1855, the colonels of regiments were awarded certain annual sums of money in lieu of off-reckonings. These sums varied from £1200 to £500, and were to be given in addition to the pay. From that date, all the troops have been clothed by the government, the off-reckonings being calculated nearly as before, but paid by the country to the colonels. When the war office was remodeled about the same time, a clothing department was added to it; and it was now found that the C. for a full regiment of 1091 non-commissioned officers and rank and file, in the line, cost about £2,500 per annum. The C. is now contracted for more openly than under the former system; and better materials are hence obtained without any increase in cost. The government has a factory on its own account, but a large part of the supply is obtained by contract. Formerly soldiers' coats were too often made of very loose, spongy materials; but now the inspection is rendered much more severe; and the cloth provided for privates is as good as that worn by sergeants a few years ago, while the cloth worn by sergeants now is correspondingly improved.

The net amount of the parliamentary vote for army clothing in 1877-78 was £805,587 (of which a proportionate part is repaid by the Indian government). The cost of a suit of uniform varies from £2 158. 4d. for a private in the line, to £8 158. for a lifeguardsman. The issue of new uniforms takes place on the 1st of April of each year. Under some circumstances, the men may receive money instead of C., at a certain price for each garment.

CLOTHING, NAVY. The seamen of the royal navy are provided, while on the ship's books, with C. by the government; but a certain sum is subtracted from their pay, to defray the greater part of the cost. The navy estimates group "victuals and clothing" together. The total vote under this head for the year 1877-78 amounted to £1,178,610, of which sum £344,742 was the amount allotted to thus provide clothing for the fleet, the coast-guard service, etc. Cast-off seamen's C. is among the "marine stores" sold by auction every year by the admiralty. In 1859, when there was a strong desire to facilitate the manning of the navy, the admiralty offered improved terms to sailors who would enter the royal service; and among other items, the following arrangements were made in reference to C.: "To every man on his first entering the navy for ten years' continuous service, and to all boys on being advanced to man's rating, a suit of clothes consisting of the following made-up articles to be furnished free of charge: A blue cloth jacket (No. 2 cloth), 178. 8d.; a pair of blue cloth trousers, do., 118. 7d.; a blue serge frock, 88. 6d.; a duck frock, 28. 9d.; a pair of duck trousers, 28. 7d.; a black silk handkerchief, 28. 10d.; and a pair of shoes, 68. 7d. In the case of a seaman being already provided with clothes approved by his captain, a corresponding amount in money is to be placed to his credit." The above figures will about show the market-value of the usual kinds of seamen's clothing.

CLOTHO, a genus of spiders, of which the only known species, C. quinquemaculata, a native of the s. of Europe and n. of Africa-about half an inch long, long-legged, brown, with black abdomen, marked with five yellowish spots-is interesting on account of its habits and the sort of tent which it spins for itself. This curious structure is in shape like a limpet shell, about an inch in diameter, and is fastened to the under side of stones or in crevices of rocks, not by its whole circumference, but by seven or eight points only. Within this the eggs are deposited in several bags of lenticular form. The parent creeps in and out under the edges of her tent, and supplies the young with food for some time.

Clouds.

CLOTHO, one of the three Moira, Parcæ, or Fates; daughter of Erebus and Nox, or of Jupiter and Themis. She was the youngest of the dreaded sisters, and her symbol was a distaff, from which she was supposed to spin the threads of mortal life. By some she is represented in a parti-colored robe, wearing a crown with seven points or stars.

CLOTILDA, SAINT, 475-545; a daughter of Chilperic, king of Burgundy, and wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. Her father, mother and brothers were murdered by Gundebald, her uncle, but he spared and educated her. He opposed her marriage with Clovis, but she eluded him and was wedded, and converted the Frank king to the Roman Catholic religion in 496. He avenged the murder of her family, and made Gundebald his tributary. After the death of Clovis, Clotilda persuaded her sons to renew the quarrel, and a war followed which ended with the union of Burgundy to the Frankish empire. Clotilda then retired to Tours, and practiced the austerities of a devotee until her death. She was buried in the church of St. Genevieve, which her husband had built in Paris, and was canonized a few years afterwards. During the revolution a devout abbe, fearing that her remains might be desecrated, had them exhumed and burnt, and the ashes are now in an urn in the church of St. Leu. There is a statue of her in the Luxembourg, and a fine church in her honor was built in Paris a few years ago.

CLOTURE. See page 885.

CLOUD, a co. in n. Kansas on Republican and Solomon rivers; 720 sq.m.; pop. 80, 15.346. The productions are almost entirely agricultural. Co. seat, Concordia.

CLOUD, ST., a t. of France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, situated on the declivity of a hill near the Seine, 5 m. w. of Paris. Its present name is said to be a corruption of St. Clodoald, the name of a grandson of Clovis, who retreated to the little village of Novigentum, to escape the fury of his uncle, Clotaire, and became a monk. After his death, the village took the name of the pious prince, whose relics were sacredly preserved, and whose tomb was the scene of many miracles. St. C. figures often in the wars of the middle ages. Henry III. was assassinated here in 1589, by the fanatical monk Jacques Clement. St. C. was long famous on account of its magnificent château, built by Mazarin, and embellished by successive dukes of Orleans, who possessed it till 1782, when it passed into the hands of Marie Antoinette. Here Bonaparte, in 1799, was named first consul; and in this place Charles X. signed the ordinances which produced the revolution of 1830. But during the siege of Paris, on the 13th Oct., 1870, the château was set on fire and almost entirely destroyed by the French artillery from mont Valerien; apparently because it was supposed to be the head-quarters of the German staff. Pop. '81, 4,081.

CLOUD BERRY, Rubus chamamorus, a plant of the same genus with the bramble, although of very different appearance, having a herbaceous single-flowered stem destitute of prickles. The plant is of humble growth, 8 to 10 in. in height; the leaves few, large, lobed, and somewhat kidney-shaped; the flower large and white, male and female flowers on separate plants, the female plant producing an orange-red fruit equal in size to a bramble-berry, and of an agreeable flavor. It is a native of the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. In Britain, it is chiefly confined to elevated moors; in Norway and Sweden, it is much more abundant, and the fruit is highly valued and made into excellent preserves. Unfortunately, the plant is of difficult cultivation, and no attempt to make it produce fruit freely in our gardens has yet been successful.— Somewhat similar to the C. is rubus geoides, which yields a very agreeable fruit as large as a raspberry, one of the few native fruits of Terra del Fuego and the Falkland islands.

CLOUDS are masses of fog, consisting of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in the atmosphere. When air saturated, or nearly so, with vapor, has its temperature lowered, either by ascending and becoming rarer, or by meeting a colder current, a portion of the vapor loses its gaseous form, and becomes condensed into minute specks of water. See EVAPORATION, DEW, RAIN, SNOW-LINE. A cloud, therefore, does not consist of vapor, in the proper sense of the word, but of water in the form of dust, as it were. How this water-dust is suspended in the atmos phere-why the particles do not descend as soon as formed, has never been satisfac torily explained. It has been assumed that the watery particles are hollow, like blown bubbles. But there is no proof of this; nor would the hollowness of the particles account for their floating, unless it could be shown that they must be filled with a gas lighter than the surrounding air. Prof. G. G. Stokes holds that they are prevented from falling mainly by the friction and drag of the air-particles, just as fine powders remain suspended in liquids of much less specific gravity than themselves. But, as sir J. Herschel says, rising and horizontal air-currents must also oppose the fall of C.; for at night, in the absence of rising currents, they often descend to and dissolve in lower and warmer levels. The conditions under which C. are formed, and afterwards deposited in rain, are more fully considered under EVAPORATION, DEW, RAIN, SNOW-LINE. The present article is contined to a description of the various kinds of C., and of the weather they indicate.

A general haze of precipitated vapor covering the sky, and coming down to the earth is termed a fog or mist; and the term cloud is usually confined to masses of fog floating

Clover.

in the higher regions, and not descending to the ground. They are mostly within a mile of the earth's surface; and none are more than 5 or 6 m. above it. They rise higher in the equatorial regions than towards the poles. C. spread and move with the wind in varied, often grand forms; they are generally disposed in beds parallel to the earth's surface; vertical C. occur rarely, if at all.

Mr. Luke Howard's classification of C., proposed in 1802, into three primary forms -cirrus (Ci.), cumulus (Cu.), and stratus (St.); three intermediate-cirro-cumulus (Ci. -cu.), cirro-stratus (Ci.-st.), and cumulo-stratus (Cu. -st.); and one compound form, nimbus (Ni.) -has been universally adopted, and holds good in all climates and atmospheric conditions.

Cirrus, or curl cloud, consists of parallel, curling, flexuous, diverging, and partly straight fibers, increasing in any or in all directions by elongation, branching, or addition of new fibers. It is the highest and least dense of C.; forms at least 3 m. above the earth; varies most in extent, direction, and shape; retains longest its varied outlines; and is the longest illuminated after sunset and before sunrise. It resembles a mare's or cat's tail, a lock of hair, fine trellis-work, or thin silvery streaks, and it may cover all the sky. Cirri seem to arise from the mixing of parallel air-currents, or are the relics of dissolving clouds drawn out in fibers by wind. Threads and groups of Ci., during gentle wind after severe weather, presage serene settled weather. But after a long tract of fair days, whitish filaments or parallel bands of Ci. crossing the sky, with the ends converging by perspective in each horizon, and traveling longitudinally, though seemingly stationary, foretell a change to wet. Ci., being so high, must consist of minute snow crystals, whose refractions and reflections produce the halos, coronæ, and mock suns and moons almost restricted to this cloud and its derivatives the Ci.-st. and Ci.-cu. The fibers often wave back and fore, or to and from each other. Ci., especially with fine tails, varying much in a few hours, presage rain or snow, and windy variable weather. Cumulus, ball of cotton, day or summer cloud, consists of dense, convex, hemispherical, or conical heaps of small roundish C., piled or stacked on each other. The heaps enlarge upwards from a horizontal base, and have crenated tops; they sometimes unite into stupendous white-topped mountains. It forms, says sir J. Herschel, in summer calms by the rise of columns of vapor from marshes, lakes, and rivers, into the colder and quickly saturable lower regions of the air; for one liquid traverses another in cylinders. Cumuli begin after sunrise as a few scattered specks in the clear sky; these specks enlarge and unite to form C., which often nearly cover the sky in the afternoon, and generally decrease and vanish about sunset; but rain follows if they increase in number and darkness in the evening. Their tops become Ci. in very dry air. Cu., of pleasing forms, dispositions, and colors, and of moderate size, presage fine dry warm and calm days; but cold, rain, and tempest follow dark, abrupt, dense, shaggy Cu., covering the sky, and rolling on each other. Hemispherical silvery white Cu. presage thunder.

Stratus, fall or night-cloud, the lowest of C., is a widely extended, horizontal sheet, of varied thickness, of white mist touching or near the earth. In density it is between Ci. and Cu., and it increases from below. It is common in summer and autumn often from sunset to sunrise, and is densest at or after midnight. It arises in calm clear evenings, after warm days; from the cooling of moist air on damp ground, marshes, lakes, rivers, or from the cooling of moist air mixed with smoke enveloping great cities. From a height, it is seen spreading around like a sea, and creeping up hillsides. After sunrise, it rises from the ground, breaks up into Cu., and vanishes with the increasing heat, to be followed by a serene day; but it may quietly accumulate in layers, and become a Ni. It does not wet objects it touches, and thus differs from a variety of Ci.-st. of like external aspect.

Cirro-cumulus, or sonder-cloud, consists of Ci. sinking in the air, and compressed into dense roundish-white cloudlets, or woolly irregular tufts, generally at great heights. It often forms a beautiful sky in beds like flocks of sheep at rest. It is often seen through breaks in lower C., moving differently. It may vanish or pass into Ci. or Ci.-st. Solar and lunar coronæ appear in it. It occurs in warm dry weather, and between summer showers, and presages increased heat. Ci,-cu. very dense, round, and close, and with Cu.-st., presages a storm or thunder. In winter, it precedes a thaw and warm wet weather.

Cirro-stratus, or vane-cloud, consists of long, thin, horizontal clouds, with bent, or undulated edges. It often resembles shoals of fish, or has a barred appearance-the mackerel-backed sky. It alone, or with Ci.-cu., forebodes rain, snow, and storm. Waved Ci.-st. generally attends heat and thunder; it often forms an extended shallow bed or thin veil, through which the sun and moon shine faintly. This variety oftenest presents the finest solar and lunar halos, parhelias and paraselenes, and it is the surest prognostic of rain and snow.

Cumulo-stratus, or twain-cloud, is a Ci.-st. mixed with Cu. heaps, or a wide flat base surmounted by a bulky Cu., with fleecy protuberances or rocky and mountain masses. It resembles a thick-stemmed fungus, with a flat, anvil-shaped, or cirrose top. It is much denser than Cu., though the air is not dry enough to round off sharply its tops. It often forms vast banks of cloud, with overhanging masses. It is common towards night in dry windy weather, when it has a leaden hue. It generally arises from Cu. becoming

denser, wider, and protruding in large irregular projections over the base. It tends to overspread the sky, and partly or wholly to become Ni., and to fall in showers. Cu.-st. is intermediate between clouds indicating fair, and those indicating rough, rainy weather, and attends sudden atmospheric changes. Distinct Cu.-st. forms before thunder. Cu.-st. increases the grandeur of mountain scenery, and drops on and envelops mountain-tops like a curtain.

Nimbus, or cumulo-cirro-stratus, the black rain-cloud, is a cloud or mixed system of clouds, ending in showers of rain, snow, or hail. It is a dense, continuous, horizontal black or gray sheet, with fringed edges, a cap of Ci., and Cu. on the sides and below. Before rain, vast towering masses of Cu. often pass into Cu.-st., which, increasing in density, darkness, irregularity, and extent, become Ni. capped by Ci.-st. Thunderstorms are always accompanied by ni. in its most perfect form.

The term scud has been applied to loose vapory fragments of C. driven by wind, and cumulonus to shaggy cumuli.

The formation and height of C. vary with the quantity of vapor in the air, the course and height of air-currents, the climate, season, temperature, disposition, and extent of sea and land, and the height of land. Cloud-strata on the Pyrenees vary in average thickness from 1600 to 3,400 feet. The lower surfaces of considerable masses of clouds in all climates are probably 2,500 to 3,000 ft. above the earth. Remarkable cloud-rings prevail over the calm zones of the equator, and over those of Cancer and Capricorn. Clouds, viewed from above in bright sunshine by the aeronaut or mountaineer, appear as dense volumes of steam or masses of white cotton. Kaemtz regards the usual height of Ci. as 10,000 to 24,000 ft.; Cu., 3,000 to 10,000; Ni., 1500 to 5,000; but Ci. may descend to 2,000 or 3,000 ft., and Ni. to within a few hundred ft. of the earth.

C. moderate the sun's rays during day, and the earth's radiation during night. They always exhibit positive or negative electricity, but of greatest tension in thunder-storms. They are the sources of the moisture required by plants; of the water of springs, lakes, and rivers; and of the polar, glacial, and winter snows, which cover temporarily or permanently parts of the earth.

In Britain, six or seven tenths of the sky is on an average daily obscured by clouds. There is most cloud in winter, and about midday, and least in May or June, and during night. Summer and autumn nights are freest of clouds. All the forms of C. may be seen in one day, often very much commingled.

CLOUDY BAY. See NEW ZEALAND.

CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH, 1819-61; the son of a cotton trader of Liverpool, who emigrated to Charleston in 1823. The boy went back to England in 1828, and was educated at Rugby and Oxford, becoming a tutor in Orriel college. He resigned in 1848, and in 1852 visited the United States, where he made the acquaintance of Emerson, Longfellow, and other literary men. On his return the next year, he was appointed examiner in the education office of the privy council. Afterwards he traveled in Europe, and was on a tour in Italy when he died suddenly of a fever. His poems are his principal works. He revised Dryden's translation of Plutarch's Lives, and wrote a series of tales under the title Mari Magno.

CLOUTED or CLOTTED CREAM is obtained by heating milk in a shallow wide pan on a hot plate or over a slow charcoal fire. The milk must be strained, as soon as it comes from the cow, into the pan, where it must stand for 24 hours before heating. It usually takes from half an hour to three quarters of an hour to heat the milk completely; but it must not boil. It then stands for 24 hours, when the cream is skimmed off, and a little sugar thrown on the top. The result is C. C., which, mixed with new milk, is eaten with strawberries, raspberries, tarts, etc. Devonshire is famous for its clouted cream.

CLOVE-BARK, another name for culilawan bark (q.v.).—Another bark which occurs in commerce under the name of C. B. is that of the myrtus caryophyllata, a native of Ceylon and the Mascarene isles. It is in sticks 2 ft. long, formed of several pieces of very thin and hard bark, rolled up one over the other, of a deep brown color, and of a taste similar to that of cloves. It possesses properties analogous to those of cinnamon. CLOVER, or TRE FOIL, Trifolium, a genus of plants of the natural order leguminsa, sub-order papilionacea, containing a great number of species, natives chiefly of temperate climates, abounding most of all in Europe, and some of them very important in agriculture as affording pasturage and fodder for cattle. The name C. is indeed popularly extended to many plants not included in this genus, but belonging to the same natural order, and agreeing with it in having the leaves formed of three leaflets, particularly to those of them which are cultivated for the same purposes, and sometimes collectively receive from farmers the very incorrect designation of artificial grasses, in contradistinction to natural grasses, i.e., true grasses. See MEDICK and MELILOT. The true clovers (trifolium) have herbaceous, not twining stems; roundish heads or oblong spikes of small flowers; the corolla remaining in a withered state till the ripening of the seed; the pod inclosed in the calyx; and containing one or two, rarely three or four seeds. About 17 species belong to the flora of Britain. The most important of all to the British farmer is the COMMON RED C. (T. pratense), a native of Britain and of most parts of Europe, growing in meadows and pastures. It is a perennial, but is generally

treated as if it were a biennial. Its heads of flowers are oval or nearly globular, very compact, about an inch in diameter, purple, more rarely flesh-colored or white; the tube of the calyx is downy; the stipules run suddenly into a bristly point. The leaflets have very often a whitish horseshoe mark in the center. This plant was formerly reputed very noisome to witches; knights and peasants wore the leaf as a potent charm against their arts. It is supposed that C. found its way into England from the Netherlands about the time of queen Elizabeth; but it was not until the close of the last century that it was introduced into Scotland, where it is now universally prevalent. The ZIGZAG C. (T. medium), also called MEADOW C., MARL-GRASS, and COW-GRASS, much resembles the common red C., but is easily distinguished by the smooth tube of the calyx, and by the broader, less membranaceous, and gradually acuminated stipules. The stems are also remarkably zigzag, and more rigid than in T. pratense; the heads of flowers are larger, more lax, more nearly globose, and of a deeper purple color; and the leaflets have no white spot. It is a common plant in Britain and most parts of Europe.-WHITE or DUTCH C. (T. repens) is also a common native of Britain and of most parts of Europe. When a barren heath is turned up with the spade or plow, white C. almost always appears. It is said to be a native also of North America, where, however, it is perhaps only naturalized. The flowers of all kinds of C. are the delight of bees, but those of this species perhaps particularly so.-ALSIKE C. (T. hybridum), a perennial, regarded as intermediate in appearance between the common red C. and the white C., has of late attained a very high reputation. It was introduced into Britain from the s. of Sweden rather more than twenty years ago.-CRIMSON C., or ITALIAN C. (T. incarnatum), an annual, native of the s. of Europe, with oblong or cylindrical spikes of rich crimson flowers, is much cultivated in France and Italy, and has of late been pretty extensively grown in some parts of England, producing a heavy crop.-MOLINER'S C. (T. Molineri) very much resembles crimson C., but is biennial, and has pale flowers. It is cultivated in France and Switzerland.-ALEXANDRIAN C., or EGYPTIAN C. (T. Alexandrinum), an annual species, a native of Egypt, universally cultivated in its native country, where it is the principal fodder for cattle, has been tried in Britain, but the colder climate has been found to render it less luxuriant and productive. It is supposed to be one of the best kinds of C. for many of the British colonies. It has oval heads of pale yellow or whitish flowers.-YELLOW C., or HOP TREFOIL (T. procumbens), is very common in dry gravelly soils in Britain, but not much esteemed. It has smaller leaves and heads of flowers than any of the cultivated species. The flowers are yellow.

It is little more than a century since clovers were introduced into field-culture in Britain. They are now universally cultivated on large farms in alternation with grain crops. The kinds most generally sown are the common red, cow-grass, Dutch white, yellow, and alsike. The common red is the finest and most valuable, but it is difficult to grow unless on naturally rich soils. In America it grows well on sandy loams, though sown every alternate year on the same land. But in Britain the land is thought to become "clover-sick" when sown too frequently with this crop. An interval of not less than eight years is thought advisable. From 6 to 20 lbs. of seed per acre is the quantity sown. Red C. is most esteemed for being mixed with rye-grass for the making of hay. When it grows well, it bears to be cut more than once a year. Cow-grass much resembles the common red C. It is coarser but hardier, and better suited for pasture, as it bears more herbage, and comes better up after being eaten close down by stock. Dutch white C. is only esteemed for pasture; it grows short and thick on the ground, but throws out fresh stems and flowers during the most of the growing season. In the s. of England, it is sometimes sown with but little rye-grass seed along with it; in Scotland, as much as a bushel or a bushel and a half of rye-grass is mixed with it for pasture. Yellow C. ischiefly sown on ground where neither the white nor red grows freely. It is not sown so frequently as it probably ought to be, for it rises early in spring, and a mixture of it with other clovers forms good pasture on all grounds. Alsike C. has been recently introduced; it rises much higher than white C., and offers to be a useful addition to our pasture-plants. Land must be thoroughly cleaned of perennial weeds before it is sown with C., as the land cannot be subjected to cultivation while it is under this plant; C., therefore, is always sown in the end of the rotation, or as near the fallow or turnip crop as possible. It is sown early in spring among the winter-wheat, or with the barley crop, and slightly harrowed in; for the seeds being small are not difficult to bury. Farm-yard manure is as good as any for clovers. A well-manured soil greatly assists in keeping the plants from dying out in spring. Clovers, like grasses, play a most important part in restoring fertility to land which has been exhausted by grain-crops. Their leaves gather foodcarbonic acid and ammonia-from the atmosphere, which they store up in their roots and stems; and these, on decomposing, afford food for cereals or other crops which are more dependent on a supply within the soil.

The caterpillars of a number of species of moth feed on the leaves of different kinds of C.; but the insects most injurious to the C. crops are weevils of the genera apion and sitona. See CLOVER-WEEVIL and PEA-WEEVIL.

CLOVER HILL, Va. See page 885.

CLO ́VER-WEE'VIL, Apion, a genus of small pear-shaped weevils (coleopterous insects, section tetramera, family rhynchophora), different species of which feed on the leaves, and their larvæ on the seeds of clover, some also on those of tares and other leguminous plants. Like the other weevils, the perfect insect has the head very much