vent the deposition of moisture from the atmosphere to such a degree as to cause droughts, a result strikingly exemplified in some of the smaller West India islands, and the tendency to which is said to be manifested on the great scale in the eastern part of the continent of North America.

The important and difficult subject of C. will be found further elucidated in some of the principal geographical articles, and in the articles AGRICULTURE, ARBORICULTURE, ATMOSPHERE, METEOROLOGY, MONSOONS, RAIN, SEASONS, STORMS, TRADE-WINDS, WIND.

CLIMAX, a Greek word signifying primarily a stair, and in rhetoric, that artifice which consists in placing before the mind of the reader or hearer a series of propositions or objects so arranged that the least forcible strikes it first, and the others rise by successive gradations in impressiveness.

CLIMBERS, Scansores, in ornithology, an order of birds generally characterized by having two toes before opposed by two toes behind, so as to adapt their feet in a remarkable degree for the purpose of grasping the branch of a tree or any similar object. Many have not two toes permanently directed backwards, but have the power of turning one of the front toes backwards at pleasure. Some have only three toes, but yet on other accounts are unhesitatingly ranked in this order. The families of the C., however, differ very much in many respects, although agreeing in the structure of their feet. To this order belong parrots, toucans, trogons, barbets, woodpeckers, and cuckoos. It has been objected to the name C., that although very descriptive of the habits of some birds of this order, as woodpeckers, it is not very applicable to others, as cuckoos, whilst, there are birds of other orders, as creepers, which possess this habit in the greatest degree; and the name has been changed by some ornithologists into yoke-footed or zygodactylous birds. It is generally the outer front toe which is directed backward in this order; but in the trogons, the first and second toes are opposed to the third and fourth.

CLIMBING FERN, Lygodium palmatum, a species of fern found, rarely, from Massachusetts to Virginia and Kentucky, remarkable for climbing or twining around weeds and shrubs. The leaves are broadly palmate, and the fertile frondlets form a panicle upon the upper portion of the stem. It is prized for interior decoration of houses.

CLIMBING PERCH, Anabas scandens, the only well-ascertained species of a genus of fishes, from which the family anabasida (q. v.) derives its name. It is a native of rivers and ponds in most parts of the East Indies. It is about 6 in. long. In general form, it somewhat resembles a perch, and the resemblance is increased by the large scales and the spiny dorsal fin. That this fish climbs trees, has been asserted by observers whose veracity and accuracy cannot easily be questioned; yet others, who have enjoyed ample opportunity of observation, express great doubt concerning this habit. In climbing, the fish is said to suspend itself by its spiny gill-covers, and by fixing its anal fin in cavities of the bark, urging its way upwards by distending and contracting its body. There is no doubt that it often leaves pools when they are in danger of being dried up, and travels in search of water. Though these fish are sometimes compelled in their distress to travel by day, and have been met in the glare of noon toiling along a dusty road, their migrations are generally performed at night or in early morning, whilst the grass is still wet with dew. Climbing perches are plentiful in the Ganges, and the boatmen have been known to keep them for five or six days in an earthen pot without water. illus., FISHES, vol. VI., p. 14, fig. 10.

See

CLIMBING PLANTS, or CLIMBERS, are, in the most extensive and popular sense of the term, those plants which, having weak stems, seek support from other objects, chiefly from other plants, in order to ascend from the ground. This, however, is accomplished in very different ways. Some climb by means of small root-like processes growing from the stem, as the ivy; some by means of cirri or tendrils, which twine round branches of trees, etc. (see CIRRUS); some by adhering disks, of which a beautiful instance is to be seen in the well-known Virginian creeper; and many by the twining of their own stems around those to which they cling. Twining plants generally turn only in one direction, either from right to left, or from left to right. The scarlet-runner and passion-flower are examples of the former; the honeysuckle and hop of the latter. Twining plants are not always included under the designation climbing plants. The woody twining plants, which form one of the most remarkable features of tropical forests, are often called lianas (q.v.).

CLINCH, a co. in s.e. Georgia, on the Florida border, intersected by the Little Suwannee river and the Atlantic and Gulf railroad; 1000 sq.m.; pop. '80, 4,138-838 colored. It is a level and swampy region; chief productions, rice, corn, cotton, oats, etc. Co. seat, Magnolia.

CLINCHER-BUILT, or CLINKER-BUILT, is a name applied in ship-building, when the lower edges of the side-planks overlap the row next under them, like slates on the roof of a house. If the planks are all smooth, meeting edge to edge, the construction is called carvel-built. This construction requires that the seams should be very close, and calked with oakum. Boats are often diagonal-built; two layers of planking, rising in opposite directions from the keel at an angle of 45°. In iron ships, the clincher arrangement is called lap-jointed, and the carvel arrangement jump-jointed.

Clinton.

CLINCH RIVER, rising in s. w. Virginia, flows into Tennessee between Clinch and Powell mountains, joining with the Holston, and forming the Tennessee. Its length is about 200 miles.

CLINGMAN, THOMAS LANIER, b. N. C., 1812; graduated from the university of North Carolina in 1832; practiced law, and was elected a member of the state legislature and of congress. In 1858, he was appointed to fill a vacancy in the U. S. senate. In the civil war he sided with the confederacy, was expelled from the senate, and served as a col. in the confederate army.

CLINGMAN'S DOME, the highest peak of the Smoky mountains in North Carolina on the border of Tennessee. It is 6,600 ft. above the sea level; and is the second highest of the Appalachians.

CLINIC BAPTISM (Gr. klinë, a bed), in the ancient church, baptism administered to a person on a sick-bed or death-bed. The practice and the term alike indicate notions concerning baptism which have no foundation in Scripture, and which, although once extremely prevalent, have now almost entirely disappeared.

CLINIC MEDICINE is that department of the art which is occupied with the investigation of diseases at the bedside, or individually.

CLINKER-BUILT: See CLINCHER-BUILT.

CLINKSTONE, or PHONOLITE, is a grayish green feldspathic rock, remarkable for its tendency to lamination, which is sometimes such that it affords tiles for roofing. It is a compact homogeneous rock, passing gradually into gray basalt. The slabs give a metallic ring or "clink" when struck with a hammer, whence its name. It occurs in volcanic districts.

CLINOM ETER, an instrument for the purpose of taking the dip and strike of a stratum. It consists of a compass provided with a small spirit-level, and on the lidwhich can be fixed at right angles to the compass-box-there is a small graduated quadrant, and a plumb-line.

CLINTON, a co. in s. w. Illinois, on Kaskaskia river, intersected by the Ohio and Mississippi and the Illinois Central railroads; 420 sq.m.; pop. '80, 18,718. It consists of fertile prairies with tracts of forest land. Productions chiefly agricultural. Co. seat, Carlyle.

CLINTON, a co. in central Indiana, reached by the Indianapolis, Cincinnati, and Lafayette railroad; 432 sq.m.; pop. '80, 23.473. Its surface is mostly of forest and prairie lands; chief business, agriculture. Co. seat, Frankfort.

CLINTON, a co. in e. Iowa, on the Mississippi river, intersected by the Chicago and North-western railroad; 696 sq.m.; pop. '80, 36,764. It has a surface of prairie and forest, with generally fertile soil, producing the usual agricultural crops. Co. seat, Clinton.

CLINTON, a co. in s. Kentucky, on the border of Tennessee, bounded n. by the Cumberland river; 350 sq.m.; pop. '80, 7,212-310 colored. The surface is hilly, and in some parts mountainous. Agriculture is the chief business. Co. seat, Albany.

CLINTON, a co. in central Michigan, on Grand, Maple, and Looking-glass rivers, reached by the Detroit, Lansing, and Lake Michigan, the Jackson, Lansing, and Saginaw, and the Detroit and Milwaukee railroads. The chief business of the people is agriculture. Co. seat, St. John's. Pop. '80, 27,534.

CLINTON, a co. in n.w. Missouri, reached by the Hannibal and St. Joseph, the Cameron and Kansas City, and a branch of the North Missouri railroads; 460 sq.m.; pop. 80, 16,073-975 colored. The surface is chiefly prairie, but there is plenty of woodland. Productions agricultural. Co. seat, Plattsburg.

CLINTON, a co. in n.e. New York, on the Canada border, bounded e. by lake Champlain, and s. by Ausable river, and traversed by the Vermont and Canada, the Montreal and Plattsburg, and the Whitehall and Plattsburg railroads; 952 sq.m.; pop. '80, 50,901. The soil is fertile, level near the lake, and hilly further inland. There is abundance of iron ore of the best quality. Chief productions, wheat, corn, oats, buckwheat, hay, butter, wool, and maple sugar. The Clinton state prison is at Dannemora, in this county. Co. seat, Plattsburg.

CLINTON, a co. in s.w. Ohio, traversed by the Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley, and the Marietta and Cincinnati railroads; 467 sq.m.; pop. '80, 27,539. Surface undu lating, and soil fertile. The chief business is agriculture. Co. seat, Wilmington.

CLINTON, a co. in central Pennsylvania, on the Susquehanna river, traversed by the West Branch canal, the Philadelphia and Erie, and a division of the Pennsylvania Central railroads. Surface mountainous; chief occupations, agriculture and lumbering. Co. seat, Lock Haven. Pop. '80, 26,278-284 colored.

CLINTON, a city in Clinton co., Iowa, on the Mississippi river, 42 m. above Davenport; pop. '81, 9,052. It is on the Chicago and North-western railroad, at the junction of several other railroads. The Mississippi is crossed at Clinton by a bridge 4,100 ft. long. In the city are the repair shops of the railroad, and a number of manufactories. It has a large and rapidly increasing trade. Lumber and grain are largely exported.

Clinton.

CLINTON, the seat of justice of East Feliciana parish, La.; 85 m. n. w. of New Orleans. The pop. in 1880 was 1,129. There is railroad communication with Port Hudson.

CLINTON, a t. in Worcester co., Mass., 32 m. w. of Boston, on the Nashua river; pop. '80, 8,030. The people are extensively engaged in manufacturing carpets, cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, etc. The Boston, Clinton, and Fitchburg, and the Worcester and Nashua railroads reach the village.

CLINTON, a t. in Hunterdon co., N. J., 31 m. n.w. of Trenton, on the s. branch of Raritan river, and the New Jersey Central railroad; pop. '80, 2,975; of the borough, 785. It is in the midst of a fine agricultural region, and has many important manu factories.

CLINTON, a village in Oneida co., N. Y., on Oriskany creek and the Chenango canal, and the Utica and Binghamton railroad; pop. '80, 1236. It is the seat of Hamilton college, and a place of important manufacturing business.

CLINTON, a village in Huron co., province of Ontario, Canada, 13 m. from Goderich, on a branch of the Grand Trunk railroad; pop. 1881, 2606. Near the place are valuable salt wells, and a deposit of rock-salt 20 ft. thick. There are various manufactories.

CLINTON, CHARLES, 1690-1773; a native of Ireland, and progenitor of the Clintons of New York, of whom his grandson De Witt was the most famous. The grandfather of Charles was an adherent of Charles I., and fled to the n. of Ireland on the fall of the king. After a voyage in which a number of the emigrants starved to death, C. landed at cape Cod in 1729, and in 1731 settled in Ulster co., N. Y., where he was a farmer, a land surveyor, and a judge of the local court. In 1756, with two of his sons, he served in the campaign against Fort Frontenac.

CLINTON, DE WITT, an American statesman of English origin, son of a maj.gen. in the U. S. army, and descended, on his mother's side, from the Dutch family of De Witt, was b. in 1769, at Little Britain, state of New York. Being admitted to the bar, he became private secretary to his uncle, gen. George Clinton, till the end of his administration in 1785. In 1797, he was elected a member of the New York legislature, and in 1801, chosen a senator of the United States. Subsequently, he was elected mayor of New York, from which office the violence of political parties occasioned his retirement in 1815. Between 1817 and his death in 1828, he was repeatedly governor of New York state. The formation of the great canal from lake Erie to the Hudson was mainly owing to his persevering endeavors. He was a member of most of the literary and scientific institutions of the United States, and of several of those of Great Britain and the continent of Europe. Besides various fugitive pieces, his productions consist of speeches, governor's messages, discourses before various institutions, addresses to the army, communications regarding Lake Erie canal, and judicial opinions.

CLINTON, DE WITT (ante), 1769-1828; b. N. Y., was the son of James Clinton and Mary De Witt, and grandson of Charles the immigrant from Ireland. His paternal ancestors, although long resident in Ireland, were of English origin, and his mother was of Dutch French blood. He was educated at Columbia college, graduating with high honors. Choosing the law for his vocation, he studied under Samuel Jones, afterwards chief justice of the United States superior court. Admitted to the bar in 1788, C. entered immediately into political life, becoming an ardent supporter of his uncle, George Clinton, who was governor of the state (from 1777 to 1795 and from 1801 to 1804), and the leader of the republican party. Young C. took an active interest in the adoption of the federal constitution, and reported for the press the proceedings of the convention held for that purpose; about the same time and afterwards acting as his uncle's private secretary. His first office was secretary of the board of regents of the university; and the next, secretary of the board of commissioners of state fortifications. He opposed the administration of John Adams, and also that of John Jay, governor of the state; but while opposing Adams's hostility to France, he raised and commanded an artillery company to resist the French in case war should come. In 1797, he was elected to the state assembly as a representative of New York city, where he made his residence, and the next year was chosen state senator for four years. By virtue of his senatorial office, C. became a member of the council of appointment, a body consisting of one senator from each district to whom the governor made nominations for state and local offices. Up to this time the governor had exercised the exclusive right to make nominations; but C. vigorously attacked the system, and succeeded in procuring an amendment to the constitution giving the members of the council of appointment equal rights of nomination with the governor. During this period C. found time to devote himself to scientific and social questions, studying natural history, and other sciences. The protection and improvement of the public health, and the enactment of laws in favor of agriculture, manufactures, and the arts, and especially the use of steam in navigation, engaged his restless mind. He labored also for the abolition of slavery, and of its kindred barbarism, imprisonment for debt. In 1799, when but 33 years of age, he was appointed a senator of the United States, where he greatly increased his popularity, particularly by his wise and moderate counsel in a high excitement then existing against Spain in con

Clinton.

sequence of alleged violation of treaty stipulations affecting the Mississippi and its trade. Before his term in the senate expired, C. resigned to accept the office of mayor of New York, an appointment made by his uncle, the governor, and the council of appointment. He held the mayor's office four years; was removed; again appointed in 1809; again removed in 1810; finally appointed in 1811, again holding four years, through the period of the war with England. He was also a member of the state senate from 1805 to 1811; lieutenant-governor for the next two years, and for part of this time again a member of the council of appointment. In 1804, his uncle, the governor, was elected vice-president of the United States, and soon afterwards, by reason of age, retired from political life, leaving the partisan scepter of the Clintons in the hands of De Witt, who speedily became the leader of the republican party in New York, and their candidate for president, near the close of Madison's first term. Madison, backed by his war record, was easily nominated by the republican congressional caucus; but the New York section of the party insisted on running Clinton. The result was a disastrous defeat for the latter, he having but 89 electoral votes to 128 for Madison. This severe blow led C. to a temporary cessation of political work, and he turned his attention to less exciting subjects. His partisan opponents considered his political life at an end; but they were wrong. He took a leading part in establishing the free-school system of New York city, and in the establishment and promotion of various institutions of science; in the improvement and modification of criminal laws; in the extension of agriculture and manufactures; in the relief of the poor, the improvement of morals, and the advancement of all worthy objects. For many years no important movement was made in these and kindred matters with which he was not identified, and oftener than otherwise as the master spirit. All these, however, were little in comparison with the great object on which his fame securely rests-the Erie canal. He was an early and energetic advocate of internal improvements, especially such as could connect the great lakes by navigable channels with the tide-water of Hudson river, and no man so eloquently or so prophetically set forth the great advantages that such works would bring to New York city. How these prophecies have been fulfilled the position of that city as the commercial center of the two Americas will attest. It would require many pages to record with what zeal, tireless energy, patience, and hope, he labored for this great object. "Clinton's folly" was the by-word of scoffers through dark years of discouragement, but he never despaired, never yielded an inch, until, a dozen years after his great political defeat, a line of cannon stationed at intervals along the much ridiculed “ditch," and starting their firing at Buffalo, awakened the people of the "Empire State" to the fact that the waters of lake Erie were pouring through the canal, bearing on their waves the message that the great lakes were on that day wedded to the ocean. In the mean time he was never entirely out of the political field. In 1816, the governor (Daniel D. Tompkins) was chosen vice-president, and resigned the governorship. C. was brought forward for the place, bearing not only the odium of advocating the "big ditch" and of the crushing defeat as a presidential candidate four years before, but the additional ignominy of having been but one year before removed from the office of mayor of New York by a council of appointment controlled by his own party. To run for governor seemed madness, yet the innate power and greatness of the man gave him an easy victory, and he was elected by a heavy majority. He was re-elected in 1820, in 1824, and in 1826. In 1822, he was out of the field, and his enemies once more celebrated his political funeral, adding, in the course of their two years' rule, the indignity of remov ing him from the office of commissioner of the canal then under way. This outrage was more than the people could bear, and C. was at once brought forward for governor, running against Samuel Young. The disgraced canal commissioner was elected by 17,000 majority. He died suddenly in his chair while engaged in official duty at Albany. Among his published works are Discourse before the New York Historical Society; Memoir on the Antiquities of Western New York; Letters on the Natural History and Internal Resources of New York; Speeches to the Legislature; and many historical and scientific

addresses.

CLINTON, GEORGE, 1739-1812; b. N. Y.; youngest son of Charles Clinton. His first noteworthy adventure was connected with privateering in the French war of 1763. He was an officer in the expedition against fort Frontenac, and after the war went into the law and politics. He was chosen to the colonial assembly and to the continental congress, was made brig gen. in the revolutionary army, and in 1777 was elected first governor of the state of New York. He was re-elected, and occupied the executive chair in all for 18 successive years, and in 1800 was chosen for one more term, making 21 years as governor. In 1804, he was elected vice-president of the United States, holding the office until his death, or during all except 10 months of Madison's two admin

istrations.

CLINTON, Sir HENRY, 1738-95; grandson of Francis, sixth earl of Lincoln. Sir Henry was a maj.gen. of the British army in the American revolution, was in the battle of Bunker Hill, and took possession of New York after the defeat of Washington's forces in the battle of Long Island, Aug. 26, 1776. In 1778, he succeeded sir William Howe as commander-in-chief. He returned to England in 1782, and in 1793 he was made governor of Gibraltar, where he died.

Cloaca.

CLINTON, HENRY FYNES, a very distinguished classical scholar, was b. Jan. 14, 1781, at Gamston, in Nottinghamshire; educated at Southwell school, and afterwards at Westminster. In 1799, he went to Oxford, and in 1805 took his degree of M.A. Next year, he entered parliament as member for Aldborough, which he continued to represent until 1826. He died Oct. 24, 1852. C.'s two great works are the Fasti Hellenici (1824-34), and Fasti Romani (1845–50). They are known to all European scholars, and contain an immense store of learning.

CLINTON, JAMES, 1736–1812; b. N. Y.; fourth son of Charles the immigrant, and father of De Witt. He went into the English army, serving as a captain in the French war, distinguishing himself in the capture of fort Frontenac. In the revolution he took the side of the colonies, and was made brig.gen. He was wounded at the capture of fort Clinton by the British, but escaped with a part of the garrison across the Hudson river. He was engaged against the Indians in gen. Sullivan's Iroquois expedition, and was present at the siege of Yorktown and the surrender of Cornwallis, and at the evacuation of New York by the English. He was a delegate to the New York convention which adopted the federal constitution.

CLINTON STATE PRISON, in Clinton co., N. Y., in the t. of Dannemora; pop. of township, '80, 2194. The prison comprises a number of buildings inclosed in a stockade which surrounds 37 acres of land. This location was chosen for the purpose of employing convicts in the mining and manufacture of iron, there being abundance of that ore on the tract belonging to the prison, or to the state. It is also in a densely wooded region, and the timber furnishes the charcoal used in the furnaces. The prison was begun in 1844.

CLIO, a genus of shell-less pteropodous mollusks, of which one species, C. borealis, is extremely abundant in the Arctic seas, and constitutes a principal part of the food of whales, so that indeed the name whale's food is often given to it by whale-fishers. It is scarcely an inch long; the head is furnished with six retractile tentacula; the organs of locomotion are two delicate fins, attached to the neck, and which in swimming are brought almost in contact, first above, then below. It is an active little creature, often coming for an instant to the surface of the water in calm weather, and then suddenly diving away into the depths. Myriads are seen together, and the water is sometimes so full of them that a whale cannot open its mouth without engulfing them in great numbers. C. australis is almost as abundant in the southern seas as C. borealis in the northern. See illus., MOLLUSKS, vol. X., p. 102, fig. 4.

CLIO, in Grecian mythology, the daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, the mother of Hyacinthus and Hymenæus. She was the muse of history and epic poetry, and was represented as bearing a half-opened roll of a book.

CLIPPER is a name familiarly given to a ship built expressly for speed. The requirements of trades in which the merchandise carried was of a perishable nature, and rendered a quick passage desirable, were probably among the first causes which directed scientific attention to the lines of vessels for the purpose of ascertaining the form adapted to offer least resistance to the water. For many years the fruit-clippers have been celebrated for their rapid passages; and the opium-clippers, and slavers, have attained an unenviable notoriety for speed. The modifications of the old form of vessel have been gradual, the desideratum aimed at being the combination of the greatest carrying capacity with the form best adapted for speed. Perhaps the most successful improvements have been those of the Aberdeen builders, the Americans, and Mr. Scott Russell. A C., as compared with an ordinary sailing-ship, is longer and narrower (though of late the tendency has been to increase the beam); very sharp at the bows, which are generally hollowed more or less below the water-line; gracefully fined away towards the stern, which is usually elliptical; and, altogether, presenting the contrast of the race-horse to the beast of burden. Some of the C. ships now running from Liverpool to America and to Australia are among the most magnificent vessels in the world. The Lightning, during a voyage from Melbourne to Liverpool, ran 2,550 English miles in one week, or at the rate of 15 m. an hour during the whole period. The Americans have fully done their part in introducing rapid C. ships, both for ocean and for river navigation, for steamers and for sailing-ships.

CLIPPING THE COIN. See COINING.

CLISTHENES, or CLEISTHENES, an Athenian, grandson of the tyrant Sicyon, who, after the expulsion of Hippias from Athens, took the side of the common people against the would-be tyrant Isagoras, and effected some changes in the constitution which tended to increase the rights and privileges of citizens, his object being to destroy the old aristocracy. He is said to have been the first to introduce the punishment of ostracism, and the first to suffer from it. He was banished by the Athenians, and 700 families of his followers also were sent away; but Isagoras finally failed of his purpose, and Clisthenes and the banished families were recalled.

CLI’THEROE, a parliamentary and municipal borough in the w. of Lancashire, on the left bank of the Ribble, 28 m. n. of Manchester. It lies on a low eminence of carboniferous limestone, at the base of Pendle hill, which is 1803 ft. high. Pendle forest