term "as liquidated damages," or some equivalent expression, that both the parties had intended to fix conclusively the sum payable in case of default. Other general rules are, that the injury for which D. are claimed must have affected the claimant individually, and not merely as one of the general public, although it is not essential that the injury should have done material hurt to him, as this only affects the amount of damages. And the injury suffered must have been the direct and immediate consequence of the act done; if it has only been a secondary or remote result of the act, no D. will be given. And any act sued on must be an actual injustice; it is not enough that it produces disadvantageous results, if these arise only from doing what the party was justified in doing. D., therefore, may be sued for in respect of a crime involving liability to criminal punishment; but in England, in the case of a felony, no action for D. will lie against the offender, because it is the duty of the complainant to prosecute him criminally. It is otherwise, however, in the case of misdemeanors; an action for D. is there independent of criminal proceedings. In Scotland, this is the rule in reference to every species of crime.

DAMAGES (ante), a term which designates the rules which govern pecuniary awards in a court of justice. The principles are general, and substantially the same in all countries. The chief principle is to give compensation for some right violated. There is necessarily a wide margin for opinion and judgment in all such cases, depending largely upon agreements and fortuitous conditions and circumstances. In general, damages are compensatory only, but in some cases they are punitory or exemplary.

DAMAN, an outlying portion of the Punjab, runs about 300 m. along the right or w. bank of the Indus, extending back, with an average breadth of about 60 m., as far as the Suliman mountains. It stretches in n. lat. from 28° 40′ to 33° 20′, and in e. long. from 69° 30′ to 71° 20'. In the absence of irrigation, the district in general is little better than a plain of smooth, bare, hard clay-the result of alternate inundation and evaporation.. But when duly irrigated, this baked and burned surface becomes very productive, more especially in the strip of land-known as the Derajat-which is nearest to the bordering stream.

DAMAN, a seaport t., province of Guzerat, Hindustan, belonging to the Portuguese. It stands at the mouth of the Daman Gunga, or Daman river, which rises in the Syadree mountains, as the upper extremity of the western Ghauts is called by the natives, in lat. 20° 11' n., and long. 73° 42' east. Common spring-tides give at least three fathoms on the bar, while outside is a roadstead of more than double that depth. The harbor affords good shelter from the s. w. monsoon, and, as the neighborhood is well stocked with suitable timber, the people are largely employed in the building and repairing of ships. The peculiar drawback of the locality is the scarcity, or rather the want, of fresh water. The river, even when swollen by the rains into an inundation, is brackish, and the wells likewise are so in some degree. Endemic fevers are the natural consequence. The place is fortified with a rampart and bastions, and it is described as having been, before the arrival of the whites, a town great and strong." Pop. 6,000.

DAMAN, Hyrax, a genus of quadrupeds, highly interesting as a connecting link between the rodentia and the pachydermata. On account of their small size, their thick fur, and their general appearance, they were always ranked among the former, till Cuvier pointed out their essential agreement, in dentition and anatomical characters, with the latter, and assigned them a place next to the elephant and the rhinoceros, remarking, that "excepting the horns, they are little else than rhinoceroses in miniature." He adds that "they have quite similar molars, but the upper jaw has 2 stout incisors curved downwards, and, during youth, 2 very small canines, the lower jaw 4 incisors without any canines." The skull, also, and other bones of the head, resemble those of the pachyderms. The muzzle is short; the ears, short and round. The ribs are more numerous than even in the pachyderms-21 pair, a number exceeded in no quadrupeds except the sloths, whereas no rodent has more than 15 pair. The toes are united by the skin to the very nail, as in the elephant and rhinoceros, and are round and soft, merely protected in front by a broad nail, which does not reach the ground. The legs are short. The tail is a mere tubercle. There are several species of this genus, natives of Africa and of the s. w. of Asia. The SYRIAN D. (H. Syriacus) is now generally believed to be the shaphan of the Old Testament, the cony (q.v.) of the authorized English version. The D. is common in Syria and Palestine, inhabiting rocky places, and sheltering itself in the holes of the rocks, but not burrowing, for which its feet are not adapted. It is a timid, harmless creature, quick and lively in its movements, completely herbivorous, easily domesticated, and, in confinement, readily eating bread, roots, fruits, and herbs. It is about 11 in. long, and 10 in. high; brownish-gray above, white beneath, the thick hair interspersed with long scattered bristles. The ASHKOKO (H. Abyssinicus) of Abys sinia, first described by Bruce, and supposed by him to be the shaphan, is now believed to be distinct from the Syrian D., although very similar. The KLIP-DASSE (H. capensis) of South Africa differs from the shaphan in its darker color and rather larger size, and also in having only 3 toes on each foot, whereas the Syrian D. has 4 toes on the fore-feet and 3 on the hind-feet. It is very common in rocky places in South Africa, both on the hills and near the sea-shore. Its favorite food consists of aromatic plants, and its flesh, although eatable, is highly flavored. In the places which it frequents, a peculiar sub

stance called hyraceum (q.v.) is found.

DAMAR', a t. of Yemen, Arabia, pleasantly situated on an elevation about 120 m. n.n.w. of Aden. It has about 5000 houses, is the residence of a governor, and has a college, attended by several hundred students.

DAMARALAND. See page 899.

DAMASCE'NUS, JOANNES, the author of the standard text-book of dogmatic theology in the Greek church, was b. at Damascus about 700 A.D. On account of his eloquence, he was surnamed chrysorrhoas ("Golden Stream"). In 730, he became a monk in the convent of St. Saba at Jerusalem, where he spent the rest of his days in the composition of theological works. He died about 756 A.D., and had the honor of being canonized by both the Latin and Greek churches. D. was a man of extensive erudition, and was considered the ablest philosopher of his time; but the word "philosopher" must have meant something very different in those days from what it does now, as D.'s writings are characterized by weakness of judgment and want of critical power. The best edition is that of Le Quien (2 vols., Paris, 1712).

DAMASCE NUS, NICOLAUS, a Greek historian of the time of Augustus and Herod the great, with whom he was on terms of intimacy. His principal work was a universal history in 144 books, of which only a few fragments remain. He also wrote an autobiography, in which much may be learned of the lives of Augustus and of Herod.

DAMAS CIUS, a philosopher b. at Damascus about the middle of the 5th century. He taught philosophy in Athens in the time of Justinian. There remains of his works only Difficulties and Solutions of First Principles.

DAMAS CUS (Arabic, Dimishkesh-Shám), a city of Syria, the largest in Asiatic Turkey, occupies a situation of unrivaled beauty on a luxuriant plain at the eastern base of the Anti-Libanus, and 53 m. e.s.e. of Beyrout, which forms its port, lat. 33° 27′ n., long. 36° 23' east. The appearance of the city from a distance is beautiful in the highest degree. The bright buildings, sparkling beneath a Syrian sun, rise out of a sea of various tinted foliage, while all around-save on the n. w., where stretches the long bare snow-white ridge of the Anti-Lebanon-extend charming gardens, rich cornfields, and blooming orchards, with the river Barrada (the Abana of Scripture) and its branches winding through until they lose themselves far to the e. in the lake Bahr-el-Merj, into which the Phege (the Pharpar of Scripture), a smaller stream, also flows. As in the case of all eastern cities, the expectations excited by a distant view of D. are by no means realized on a close inspection. The city proper is about 6 m. in circumference, and is partly surrounded by old tumble-down walls, portions of which date from early Roman times, while other parts are of Saracenic architecture, and some mere mud-patches of the present day. The streets generally are dirty and decayed, and so very narrow that a loaded donkey almost entirely blocks up the passage. The best street is "Straight street," mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles in connection with St. Paul. The houses for the most part are very mean-looking structures, often presenting to the street nothing but a dead-wall with a doorway in it, while the best have rough mud-walls, with a projecting upper story extending so far over the narrow street that hands may be shaken from opposite windows. But as the interior of the city presents a sad contrast to its charming surroundings, so do the rich interiors of the houses contrast with their miserable externals. Fine marble-paved courts ornamented with trees, shrubs, and fountains, rooms with arabesqued roofs and walls, most luxuriously furnished, are the common features of all the dwellings of the wealthier classes. The principal buildings of D. are places of worship, chief of which is the Great Mosque-formerly a heathen temple, then a Christian church-composed of different kinds of architecture, and occupying a quadrangle 163 yards by 108 yards, the interior dimensions being 431 ft. by 125. The floor is of marble tesselated, and covered with Persian carpets, and the walls and piers of the transept are enriched with beautiful devices formed of various colored marbles, while rows of noble Corinthian pillars divide the interior into nave and aisles Altogether, this is one of the handsomest ecclesiastical buildings of which Mohammedans can boast. The citadel is large and imposing, but not strong; and the Great Khan is a splendid building, erected of black and white marble. There are many interesting remains of antiquity in D., but they are lost amid the mean modern structures and the bazaars. The latter are numerous, and finer than those of Cairo or Constantinople, and very well supplied with goods of oriental manufacture; each class of goods having a bazaar for itself. The manufactures of D. used to be important, consisting of silks, cottons, coarse woolen cloth, jewelry, saddlery, and arms; but her productions are now little more than sufficient for local consumption. Before 1860, her looms were reckoned at 3,000, while now they are said to barely reach 1300. The manufactures of the famous Damascene blades have long ceased to exist. This decline is chiefly caused by the taxation upon raw products. The trade with Bagdad was large; but in 1857 the caravan was plundered on its way across the desert, the loss to the merchants of D. being estimated at £40,000. This paralyzed the commerce. The annual caravan to Mecca from D. at one time consisted of some 50,000 or 60,000 persons, most of whom engaged to some extent in trade; but the facilities which in recent

years have been afforded for making the pilgrimage by way of Egypt and the Red sea, have caused considerable diminution in the pilgrims, and consequently in the trade. One of the greatest blows at the prosperity of D. was struck in 1860, when the Druses (q.v.) entered the city, and destroyed about 6,000 houses in the Christian quarter, killing from 3,000 to 5,000 persons, and selling many of the women into Turkish harems. The imports of British goods, chiefly plain and printed calicoes, cotton handkerchiefs, and cotton yarn have been valued at £150,000. In 1870, the value of the goods brought into D. by the great (Bagdad) caravan was £90,000. Pop., including the adjoining village of Salahiyeh, 150,000; 130,000 are Mohammedans, 15,000 Christians, and 5,000 Jews.

D. is perhaps the most ancient city in the world. Josephus attributes its foundation to Uz, the great-grandson of Noah; but whether it dates so far back or not, it is certain that it was a place of consequence in the days of Abraham. During the time of the Hebrew monarchy, it was the capital of Syria. It afterwards passed successively under the rule of the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Saracens; and finally, in 1516, it was captured by the Turks under sultan Selim I.-in whose hands, with the exception of a short interval (from 1832-40), when it belonged to the pasha of Egypt, it has remained ever since. Under every change of dynasty and every form of government, D., unlike most cities, has retained its prosperity.

The vilayet of D. comprises all the territory between the Lebanon and the Euphrates -that is, all between lat. 31° to 36° n., and long. 35° to 41° east. The surface is for the most part level and very fertile, and produces grain of various kinds, hemp, flax, silk, cotton, madder, tobacco, and cochineal. The vilayet of D.- -or of Syria as it is also called-is accounted the most important vilayet of Turkey. Pop. 518,750.

DAMASCUS BLADE. See DAMASKEENING.

DAMASK, the name given to all textile fabrics in which figures of flowers, fruits, or others not of geometrical regularity, are woven. The word is supposed to be derived from the city of Damascus having been an early seat of these manufactures. From the intricacy of the early process, the art of D. weaving was long a mystery confined to a few localities; but since the introduction of the Jacquard machine, it is extensively employed wherever ornament is wanted in the stuffs used for dress or house-furnishings. The rich satins and brocades of Lyons and Spitalfields, the flowered ribbons of Coventry, and the bed and window curtains of Halifax and Bradford, are all examples of D. manufacture; but it is in the department of table-linen that the art has had its widest scope and greatest triumphs. The principal seats of the manufacture, on the continent of Europe, are at Courtrai and Liege in Belgium, and in some parts of Saxony, Silesia, and Austria; in England, to a considerable extent at Barnsley, in Yorkshire; in Ireland, at Belfast, Lisburne, and Ardoyne; and in Scotland, at Dunfermline, which may be called the metropolis of the manufacture.

There are three descriptions of D. known in the trade-viz. 1. Full harness, which is generally employed in patterns of limited size and minute detail, the peculiarity being that the Jacquard machine only lifts one thread by each needle, and in such cases, the pattern is repeated to fill up the breadth wanted. 2. "Single" or "common D., in which any number of threads, from two to seven, can be lifted by one needle, to form the pattern; while the ground is produced by a set of five shafts and heddles, giving from twice to seven times the extent of pattern obtained from the same machine by the full-harness process. In full harness and single D. goods, a square fabric is considered the proper medium, that is, the warp and weft equal; but sometimes a thread or two less or more on warp or weft is used, according to the effect wanted to be produced. 3. In double D., the pattern is produced in the same way as in single, and the ground formed by eight shafts and heddles, forming what the weavers call an eight-leaved twill, absorbing one half more weft than warp, and giving that fine satin-like ground which distinguishes double damask. Besides these descriptions of D., a mixed cotton and woolen colored fabric in table-covers has been introduced, and is now manufactured extensively, the ground of which is woven with twelve shafts.

46

To give an idea of the capital required to work the finer branches of the trade, it may be mentioned, that it is quite usual for the mere designing and painting of a pattern to cost £50; and £70 has been paid for some extensive designs; while the famous Crimean hero" pattern, containing portraits of the queen, prince consort, emperor Napoleon, etc., cost £600 of outlay, ere a yard of cloth could be brought to market, employing seven Jacquard machines, consuming 50,000 cards, and containing 4,800 threads in the square yard. In 1836, there were in Dunfermline 3,000 D. and 517 diaper looms, and the capital embarked in the trade was estimated at £826,261, and the total number of persons employed, 5,044. Steam-power was successfully inaugurated in 1849, when one factory employed about 100 power-looms. In 1877, there were 11 powerloom factories, with 4,000 looms, two thirds of which were employed in the weaving of damask. When it is considered that the production of one power-loom is equal to that of four hand-looms, some idea may be formed of the development of the trade since 1836.-A good description of D. and the D. loom is to be found in Chalmers's History of Dunfermline, vols. i. and ii.

DAMASKEEN'ING, or DAMASCEN'ING, is the art of producing upon ordinary steel cer tain ornamental appearances resembling those observed on the famous Damascus blades. Attention was first drawn to this branch of industry by the crusaders, who brought from Damascus to Europe many articles made of superior steel, such aз sword-blades and daggers. These were found to possess not only great elasticity, united with considerable hardness, but their surfaces were covered with beautiful designs, formed by a tissue of dark lines on a light ground, or light lines upon a dark ground, and occasionally by the inlaying of gold on the steel-blue ground. These Damascus blades appear to have been constructed of steel and iron welded together; and the elegant designs were brought out by immersing the blades in dilute acids, which, eating away unequally the surface, gave rise to the mottled appearance. In genuine Damascus blades, the designs run through the substance of the blade, and the watering, or regular, almost symmet rical figuring is not worn off by friction, or even grinding. Imitations of the watering of Damascus steel are produced on common steel by etching with acids; and in this way landscapes, inscriptions, and ornaments, and decorations in general, are imprinted on the steel-blue ground. Gold and silver are also inlaid in the higher-class of sword. blades and other articles. Gun-barrels are occasionally subjected to the process of damaskeening. Attempts have been made in France to accomplish damaskeening by means of photography, but as yet with very imperfect results.

DAM'ASUS, SAINT, Bishop of Rome, was by extraction a Spaniard, and born probably early in the 4th century. In 366 A.D., he was elected bishop of Rome, but had to struggle fiercely for the possession of his office with one Ursinus, who was supported by a considerable party. His career was throughout far from peaceful. It was mainly spent in subduing the still numerous Arians in the west; in combating the heresy of Apollinaris, which he caused to be condemned by the council assembled at Constantinople in 382; and in defending the cause of Paulinus against Meletius. He died 384. It is difficult to form a just estimate of D.'s character. His enemies used to call him Auriscalpius Matronarum (“The ear-tickler of the married ladies "), and hinted that he was in the habit of inducing rich female penitents to make testamentary bequests in his favor-a conspicuous vice of the clergy at that time; so much so, indeed, that Valentinian was obliged to issue an edict forbidding ecclesiastics to receive such bequests for the future. The edict was addressed to D., who was required to announce it to the church. On the other hand, he was a great friend of St. Jerome, and was primarily instrumental in inducing that learned divine to undertake a new translation of the Bible. His extant works consist of seven epistles, addressed to various bishops, and rather more than forty short poems, religious, descriptive, etc., but of little or no merit. The first edition was published at Rome by Sarrazanius in 1638. D.'s festival falls on the 11th December.

DAM'ASUS II., a native of Bavaria, a bishop in the Tyrol, chosen the 155th pope on the death of Clement II., in 1047. His reign lasted but 23 days.

DAMBOOL', a vast rock-temple of the Buddhists in Ceylon, containing, among a profusion of carvings, figures of Buddha, of extraordinary magnitude. See Ceylon, by sir J. Emerson Tennent (Lond. 1859), vol. ii. p. 577.

DAME (Lat. domina, a mistress), a title of honor which long distinguished high-born ladies from the wives of citizens, and of the commonalty in general. In the age of chivalry, it was customary even for a queen to be so called by her chosen knight ("the dame of his heart, of his thoughts," etc.). In consequence of the greater courtesy shown towards women of higher rank, arose the custom of prefixing the word ma to dame, as a special proof of veneration and homage. Hence, too, the Virgin-mother was called in France Notre-Dame (“Our mistress," or lady, as if no one Christian could exclusively claim the privilege of serving her with the homage of his heart). The daughters of the king of France, as soon as they came into the world, were called madame; and this was also the sole title of the wife of the king's eldest brother. In England, the word D., though not much used, is now applied to married women of all classes. Madame is shortened into madam, which is still a word of honor, applicable, in particular cases, to majesty itself. Thus, Alfred Tennyson, in dedicating his poems to queen Victoria, speaks as a chivalrous troubadour might have done

"Take, madam, this poor book of song."

DAME'S VIOLET, Hesperis, a genus of plants of the natural order crucifera, having four-sided or two-edged pods, and containing several species, annual and biennial herbaceous plants, natives, chiefly, of the middle and s. of Europe. One only, the COMMON D. V., or WHITE ROCKET (II. matronalis), is found in Britain, in hilly pastures, but perhaps rather escaped from cultivation than a true native. It has an erect branched stem, with ovato-lanceolate leaves, and terminated by numerous large lilac-flowers, which are scentless by day, but very fragrant at night, on which account this plant is cultivated in flower-pots by German ladies. The custom appears to have been an old English one also, and from it the plant derives its common name. The NIGHT SCENTED ROCKET (H tristis) is also a favorite flower in Germany.

DAMIA'NI, PIETRO, 1000-72; a Roman Catholic prelate, eminent, intellectually, and morally, who supported various reforms which Hildebrand (the great pope, Gregory

VII.) also favored, for which he was persecuted by the corrupt priests of Milan. He was appointed cardinal bishop of Ostia, 1057. In 1069, he was sent as legate to Germany to dissuade Henry IV. from applying for a divorce, in which he was successful. He was engaged on other occasions to make peace and suppress disorder. Among his writings is a fine religious hymn in Latin.

DA'MIANISTS, or ANGELISTS, a sect of the 6th c., followers of Damianus, a patriarch of Alexandria, who agreed substantially with the Sabellians.

DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANÇOIS, known for his attempt to assassinate Louis XV., was born in 1714, at Tieulloy, a village near Arras, in France. He was evilly-disposed from his youth, being known even then as Robert le Diable. On account of a robbery which he had committed, he was obliged to flee into Belgium in 1756, whence he returned to Paris about the end of the year. It was during his absence in that country that he formed the intention of assassinating his sovereign. The motives which led him to this are not well understood. He himself alleged that it was the conduct of the king towards the parliament; while a more popular, but apparently groundless opinion was, that he was instigated by the Jesuits. On the 5th of Jan., 1757, having gone to Versailles on the previous day, he assiduously followed the king and his courtiers about everywhere; and about six o'clock at night, when the king was entering his carriage to leave Trianon, managed to stab him. The king, however, recognized his assassin, and D. was seized. The punishment inflicted on him was horrible. The hand by which he attempted the murder was burned at a slow fire; the fleshy parts of his body were then torn off by pincers; and, finally, he was dragged about for an hour by four strong horses, while into his numerous wounds were poured molten lead, resin, oil, and boiling wax! Towards night, the poor wretch expired, having by an effort of will almost superhuman, kept his resolution of not confessing who were his accomplices—if, indeed, he had any. His remains were immediately burned, his house was destroyed, his father, wife, and daughter were banished from France forever, and his brothers and sisters compelled to change their names.

DAMIET TA, a t. of Lower Egypt, situated on the right bank of the chief of the Nile's eastern branches, about 8 m. from its mouth in the Mediterranean, in lat. 31° 25′ n., long. 31° 49' east. It is in general ill and irregularly built, but it has some handsome mosques and marble baths, and several bazaars. Its commerce has been much injured by the prosperity of Alexandria. It still, however, carries on a considerable trade in exporting rice, which grows abundantly in the neighborhood, fish, etc.; and in importing charcoal, soap, silk, etc. The exports in 1871, were £85,200, the imports £150,600. It is connected by railway and telegraph with Cairo, etc. The cloth known as dimity received its name from D., where it was first manufactured. A bar at the mouth of the river prevents vessels of more than 50 or 60 tons burden from ascending to Damietta. Pop. 37,036. The existing town was erected about 1251, but, prior to that, a city of the same name (more anciently Tamiáthis) stood about 4 m. to the south. It was strongly fortified by the Saracens, and formed on that side the bulwark of Egypt against the early crusaders, who, however, succeeded in capturing it more than once. It was razed, and rebuilt further inland on the site it now occupies, by the sultan Baybers.

DAÎMİR (Kemâl ud-den Abu'l Bagâ Muhammed Ben Musa Ben Isa ad-Damîrî AshSkafei), 1341-1405; b. Cairo, Egypt; an Arabian_writer on canon law, but better known to Europe by his work on natural history, The Life of Animals, in which he catalogues 931 beasts, birds, fishes, and insects, with the habits of which he appears to have been acquainted. The work is full of episodes treating of history and religion, in consequence of which its literary value is much increased.

DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT, 1794-1862; a French philosophical writer who studied under Burnouf, Villemain, and Cousin. He lectured on philosophy in various Parisian institutions, became professor in the normal school, and titular professor at the Sorbonne. He was one of the founders of the Globe newspaper, a member of the legion of honor, and of the academy of sciences. He published a number of philosophical works, particularly on the history of philosophy in France.

DAM MAR, or DAMMAR PINE, Dammara, a genus of trees of the natural order conif era, distinguished from all the rest of that order by their broad lanceolate leathery leaves, which have numerous nearly parallel veins, and by their seeds being winged, not at the end, but on one side. The tree from which the name, originally applied to its resinous product, has been extended to the whole genus, is the MOLUCCAN D. (D. orientalis), which grows on the high mountain-ridges of the Molucca islands. It grows to a great height, attains a diameter of 9 ft., and generally has the lower part of the trunk beset with knots as large as a man's head. The timber is light and of inferior quality; and the tree is chiefly valuable for its resin, which is soft, transparent, hardens in a few days, and is then white, with a crystalline appearance. The resin often flows spontaneously from the tree in such quantity, that it hangs in masses like icicles of a handbreadth and a foot long. At another period of the year, it is yellow, and less valued. By incision, especially in the protuberances of the stem, it is obtained in large pieces. So long as dammar resin is soft, it has a strong smell; but loses it when it dries. It contains only a trace of volatile oil, but consists