receptacles.

5. Wooden skimmer. 4. Mechanical milker. 3. Milking-pail. 12. Atmospheric churn. 11. Cleve's barrel-organ churn. 9. Cheese-twirler.

n.

6. Earthenware milk13, 14. Lavoisy's butter-machine. 21. English Cheese-press. 22. Cheese-turner.

571

observed in the case of some milk cows kept on the Scotch system on straw and a full allowance of turnips. Under better management, the expensive hay and roots may be materially reduced in quantity, and the adequate amount of nutriment supplied by such articles as bean-flower, rape, or cotton cakes, bran, malt coombes, and the like; whilst sufficient bulk—an important matter in the feeding especially of ruminants-is attained by the use of chopped straw. The cutting of straw into chaff insures the eating of a larger amount, and thus becomes nearly twice as valuable as when employed merely as litter. Bean-straw, when steamed or fermented with pulped or grated roots, loses entirely its bitter flavor, and being rich in albuminous matters, is specially adapted for milking cows. A portion of the roots, or all of them where the supply is small, should be pulped, mixed with the cut chaff, and the mixture allowed to lie in a heap for a day or two before being used. With the roots should be added 3 or 4 lbs. or rape-cake and The moisture and flavor of the succulent roots permeate 2 lbs. of bran for each cow. the dry food, inducing fermentation, with the development of sugar, and the mass thus becomes more palatable and digestible. Sometimes the mixture is steamed and given warm; and for milk-cows in cold weather, one or two such messes given daily, usually pay for the cost and trouble of steaming. Of the mixture thus fermented or steamed, the cows should have as much as they can eat thrice a day. Cows in full milk, or intended to be speedily fattened, should have sprinkled over it a small quantity of bean or wheat meal, to the extent of 1 lb. or even 2 lbs. daily. After each meal, give 3 lbs. of good meadowhay, and be careful never to allow of hay or anything else more than can be cleared up at once and with relish. In most parts, especially of England and w. of Scotland, cabbage and green rape form the best succulent food for the first two winter-months; turnips and Swedes for the next two; whilst mangold should serve until the grass is abundant in spring; but it should ever be borne in mind, that animals thrive best on varied and A few feeds of mangolds, when the Swedes are the staple frequently changed food. root, and vice versa, besides being a pleasing variety, will be found to augment the quantity of the milk. Rape-cake answers for milk cows quite as well as the more expensive linseed-cake, especially when its bitter taste is got rid of, as already advised, by fermenting or steaming. The increased produce, improved condition of the cows, and enhanced value of the manure, amply repay the trouble and the cost of this higher system of feeding, which amounts to from 18. 6d. to 18. 9d. per head daily.

The summer-feeding of cows is more natural and less expensive than the winter. In the English dairy counties, they are grazed upon the old pastures which are for this purpose preferred to those more recently laid down; whilst in Scotland they are often pastured upon the clovers. They should never have to work hard for their meals, and should further receive in the house, when brought in for milking, cut clover and ryegrass. Unless in the case of very fine and rich pastures, an allowance of rape-cake is also advisable. Such management not only improves the yield and quality of the milk, but supports the cows in high condition, and maintains the pastures in high and increasing fertility. This last matter is worthy of consideration, for under the older system, many of the once-famed dairy-farms of Cheshire and other counties rapidly declined in value. The tons of butter and cheese carried away from the soil left it poor and unprofitable. In such circumstances, the use of bones and other such manures, by improving the condition of the soil, greatly improved the nutritive quality of the grass and hay. The produce of good land in high condition is always more valuable alike for dairy and for feeding purposes. A given acreage will support more animals, if the produce be cut and brought to them, than if they are permitted to depasture it. The advantages of both systems are, however, secured by running the cows at grass during part of the day and giving them cut clover in the house during Throughout the early and later part of the season, it is better the remainder. that the animals be out during the day, and in at night; but in the intense heat of a warm summer, their being housed in the day secludes them from the attacks of troublesome flies, and permits their grazing undisturbed during the cool of the night. When cows run and jade themselves in the pastures during oppressive heat, their value as milkers is depreciated.

A good supply of water is necessary for milk-cows, which require much more than feeding-stock. In winter, they should have access to it at least twice a day, and require it still oftener in summer. Adequate shelter, and comfortable and convenient buildings Unless the housing is good and comfortare very essential to successful management. able, the materials which ought to go to the formation of butter are wastefully spent in Cows in full milk are most profitably kept in well-ventilated supporting animal heat. byres or hovels, of which the winter temperature should fall little below 60°.

The heifer may be put to the male when about two years old. The period of gestation is nine calendar months, or 284 days, but is usually shorter in young animals, and when the calf is a female. During pregnancy, cows fortunately are little liable to disease. Abortion occasionally occurs, and is most common about the third or fourth month. It The heifer should receive the ordinary food of store-stock until within six or eight weeks of calving, when it is profitable to diet her as recommended for cows. is a great mistake to starve cows in calf. They should be fairly and carefully fed, and milking suspended entirely for about 2 months, or at least 6 weeks before calving, In older cows, especially if good milkers, for a fortnight before calving, the bowels must

Dairy.

be kept relaxed, the teats drawn, and any milk removed several times a day, and an occasional dose of salts given. Such simple precautions will prevent that apoplectic form of milk-fever which destroys so many excellent milk-cows. The enlargement of the udder, and appearance of milk, the loosening of the ligaments of the pelvis, the relaxation of the vulva, and the animal's evident desire to be alone, betoken the approach of parturition. The act is generally accomplished speedily and easily, and without requiring much assistance. The calf usually comes with its forelegs first, and its head rather on one side, with the nose between the knees. The cow often stands, and as the calf drops, the navel-string is ruptured. With a wisp of straw, the little animal is rubbed dry, and receives either from its mother, or from a bottle, a small quantity of the rich new milk popularly known as the "beastings" or cherry-curds technically termed the colostrum (q. v). In this the caseine is mostly displaced by more easily digested albumen; whilst the large amount of sugar and oily matter promotes the clearing out of the bowels. In few cases of dairying are the calves allowed to suckle their dams. Many of the calves are sold young, to graziers and feeders; others are intended for veal, and are fed highly for a short time on good milk, meal, and cake; while some -a few of the female animals-are fostered and reared with a view to fill blanks in the cow ranks. These latter get warm milk for five or six weeks, and skimmed for about as long, after which grass, early roots, and cake sustain them. For the first nine days, calves should be carefully muzzled to prevent them eating straw. They do not ruminate until the ninth day is passed, and if before then they eat any straw, death generally ensues. The cow after calving should have a drink of meal and tepid water, to which a little salt may be added. For the first week, steamed food, bran-mashes, with good hay, constitute the best food: roots at all times, and cold water during winter, are best withheld. Cleansing drinks are quite uncalled for; and if the placenta do not come away within 12 hours after calving, it may be very properly and safely removed by any one accustomed to such offices. After the lapse of a fortnight from the date of calving, roots may be given in considerable quantities, provided always the change has been accomplished gradually. Turnips touched by frost should be studiously avoided to cows either before or after calving, especially before.

In England, milking is usually done by men, 8 or 10 cows being allotted to cach, and the operation, except in the case of newly calved cows, is repeated only night and morning. In Scotland, the milking is generally done by women, three times a day; and more milk is thus got than by milking only twice. The removing of the whole of the milk at each operation is most essential; indeed, experienced dairymen aver that half their profit lies in carefully getting the last of the milk, which, as is well known, is much the richest. With liberal feeding, such as that above described, well-selected cows yield daily, in a fortnight or three weeks after calving, 12 to 16 quarts, and should continue to do so for six or eight months. Even with the same management, the milk of some cows is especially rich, and yields an unusually large proportion of butter: whilst others are equally remarkable for the way they fill the cheese-tub. A quart of ordinary milk yields about an ounce of butter; and more in summer than in winter; but under good feeding, the amount reaches and even exceeds an oz. and a haif, and is tolerably equal at all seasons. A quart of new milk yields 4 ozs. of curd, and each cow is estimated to produce 500 lbs. of cheese in the season. It is essential that the cows be kindly treated by those to whom their milking is intrusted; otherwise, the animals will retain the best of the milk. Some people approve of giving food to the cow during the milking process. This may secure a freer discharge of the milk, but it establishes a troublesome custom, which, once begun, must generally be carried out ere the cows allow their milk to flow; and in dairies not very systematically conducted, or small, the application of food at the milking hour is often inconvenient. On many farms, where dairying is not a special feature, much of the value of the cows is lost by imperfect and careless milking-the work of unscrupulous servants.

In the successful management of milk, butter, and cheese, much depends upon the dairy itself. It should have, if practicable, a northern exposure. Proximity to sewers, pig-sties, or any offensive smells, must be sedulously avoided. Stone and lime are the best materials. The walls may be advantageously lined with a skirting of brick, or, where the cost is not objected to, with white glazed tiles. A lofty roof and free ventilation must be provided, with windows looking north. A double door is advisable-a light sparred one placed inside, useful in summer for freely admitting plenty of air; and a solid, well-fitting, boarded one, removable in summer, and necessary for keeping out the winter cold. The temperature of the dairy may be further moderated, in hot wea ther, by allowing a stream of cold water to trickle slowly over the floor, or, better still, round the milk vessels, placed in large vats, and by hanging throughout the room coarse calico saturated with water several times a day. In winter, hot-water pipes, closed doors, windows protected by straw, and such other appliances, must be resorted to for the maintenance of the desirable temperature of from 50 to 56°. Further to insure an equable temperature, it is advisable to shelter the building with trees and shrubs, and, if possible, have it 4 or 5 ft. below the level of the ground. No animal food, drying ing clothes, or indeed anything else, except milk, butter, and newly made cheese, should ever enter its walls. To remove any acidity or noxious emanations, charcoal-powder is sometimes kept strewed on the shelves. An annual whitewashing of roof and walls

Dairy. helps to cleanse and purify. Daily must the floor and shelves be thoroughly scrubbed and washed, and not a drop of spilled milk allowed to remain for many minutes unremoved. By far the neatest and best shelves are of stone or slate, 2 ft. wide, raised on stout iron rods about 2 ft. from the bricked or paved floor. The dishes are best made of earthenware, or oak lined with lead. Where many cows are kept, these last may be conveniently made 3 ft. wide, and 4 or 5 ft. long. They will thus project 6 in. over the shelf, and should be provided with a brass plug, by which the milk, when skimmed, can be drawn off without moving the vessels. These, and the milk-buckets, and, indeed, every article that comes in contact with milk or butter, must be kept scrupulously clean. Immediately after use, they should be rinsed out with cold water, and then with hot; wooden and metal articles well scoured with a scrubber, again washed, or, where practicable, dipped into a boiler amongst scalding water, and then set aside for several hours to dry, air, and sweeten. For scrubbing purposes, a small, tightly girded bunch of mountain heath, where such can be had, is best adapted, and failing it, a wisp of strong straw. These should be changed frequently. Indeed, the comparatively short period of their duration is a guarantee for that. Inattention to the proper cleaning and scouring of the dishes, especially in sultry weather, is sure to be marked by sour milk. Upon many farm homesteads in Scotland, loss is occasioned by the unsatisfactory condition in which the dairies are kept.

The milk, when brought into the dairy, is run through a wire-gauze or horse-hair strainer, into the vessels above described. To encourage the rapid rise of the cream, the layer of milk should be shallow, especially in summer. At the end of 12 or 24 hours, the cream is carefully removed; and in cool weather the milk may stand for another 12 or 24 hours, when it is again skimmed, the residue going to the pigs or calves. The cream removed at the first skimming is always richest and best; and where it is desired that the butter should be first rate, any subsequent skimmings may be kept separate, and churned by themselves. Churning at short intervals of twice or thrice a week is preferable to allowing the cream to stand for a longer period. Every time cream is added, the contents of the tank or cistern are well stirred, and a little salt added, unless, as in Scotland, where the butter is liked perfectly fresh. The cream should be kept as cool as possible, especially during the several hours preceding churning. For this end, in very hot weather, the cream-tank is sometimes lowered into a conveniently deep well, or placed for several hours in a water-cistern or under a running tap. In such weather, the churning, which generally occupies from 30 to 40 minutes, should be done at night, the butter laid in brine, and made up early next morning. When the whole milk is kept for churning, care must be taken never to add new milk to that which has already been sour. Cheese-making (see CHEESE) was a laborious process. Now, however, by the establishment of dairy factories in America, and latterly in England, much of the manual labor is saved. The factories have been very successful in America, where they are carried on to a great extent, and with advantageous results to all concerned. On the same principle, two have existed in Derbyshire for several years.

Railway communication has greatly extended, improved, and even cheapened the dairy supplies of London and other large towns. The night and early morning trains now carry thither from distances of 60, 80, or 100 m., quantities of butter and milk, the latter in large tins, which in hot weather are usually covered with wetted calico to promote evaporation, and thus keep the milk cool and sweet. The sale of the sweetmilk is found to pay better than the making either of butter or cheese. Quantity rather than quality of milk is usually the main requirement, and a liberal amount of soft succulent food is accordingly used. In London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and other large towns, the cow proprietors do not rear their own cows, and dependent as they are on the ordinary cow market, they often buy animals which they do not find it advisable to keep long. They put a great many through their hands. For the most part of the year they are necessarily stall-fed, the dietary consisting of cut grass, various sorts of early roots, and distillers' or brewers' draft and wash. This sloppy sort of food produces a great quantity of milk, which is the main desideratum. The grass raised from town-sewerage irrigation has latterly been given extensively to city dairymen's Cows. The milk from cows fed on this grass has been blamed for engendering typhoid fever. Whether it is blameworthy or not is a point that has not as yet been set at rest. Statistics show that the united kingdom is gradually becoming more dependent on foreign supplies of dairy produce. In 1856, 513,392 cwt. of butter were imported; and in 1880, the quantity had increased to 2,326,305 cwts. Cheese shows an even greater increase in the same period, the quantity imported in 1856 being 407,076 cwts., and in 1880, 1,775,997 cwts. To add to the significance of the statistics, the exports from Great Britain indicate a decrease. The butter exported in 1856 reached 139,548 cwts.; and in 1880, 31,408 cwts. Cheese exported in 1856, 39,545 cwts.; and in 1880, 11,903 cwts.

For further information, the reader is referred to the following works: Dairy Farming, by John C. Morton; Dairy Management, by J. Horsfall, being a republication of the papers above alluded to (Ridgway); Dairy Management, by Mrs. Scott (Blackwood); articles on Dairy Management in Morton's Cyclopædia of Agriculture; and Stephens' Book of the Farm.