Douglas for his father, admiral sir Charles Douglas, but C.'s right to it is indisputable. He died May 10, 1812.-His son, JOHN CLERK (lord Eldin), an eminent Scottish judge, born in April, 1757, was educated for the profession of the law, and in 1785, was admitted advocate. Distinguished for great clearness of perception and admirable powers of reasoning, he had for many years the largest practice at the Scottish bar, and in 1823 was raised to the bench, when he assumed the judicial title of lord Eldin. He possessed a quaint sarcastic humor, and a coarse but ready wit, which, with his lameness and other bodily peculiarities, rendered him one of the most remarkable Edinburgh characters of his time. He died in that city in June, 1832.

CLERK, PARISH, an official in the church of England, who leads the responses in a congregation, and assists in the services of public worship, at funerals, etc., but is not in holy orders. There is usually one in each parish. In cathedrals and collegiate churches, there are several of these lay-clerks; and in some cases they form a corporate body, having a common estate, besides payments from the chapter. Before the reformation, the duties were always discharged by clergymen.

CLERK TO THE SIGNET. See WRITER TO THE SIGNET.

CLERMONT, a co. in s. w. Ohio, on the Ohio river, reached by the Marietta and Co. Cincinnati, and the Cincinnati and Muskingum valley railroads; 462 sq.m.; pop. '80, 36,713. The soil is fertile; productions, wheat, corn, butter, wool, tobacco, etc. seat, Batavia.

CLERMONT (in the middle ages, Clarus Mons, or Clarimontium) is the name of several towns in France. The most important is the capital of the department of Puy-de-Dôme, Clermont-Ferrand (the Augustonemetum of the Romans, in the country of the Arverni), which is finely situated on a gentle elevation between the rivers Bedat and Allier, at the foot of a range of extinct volcanoes, crowned by the peak of Puy-de-Dôme, about 5 m. C. contains distant from the town. It consists of the two towns of C. and Montferrand, upwards of a mile distant from one another, and connected by a fine avenue of trees. several remarkable buildings: the old Gothic cathedral, the corn and linen hall, the theater, and the hôtel-dieu, or hospital. C. has several educational and scientific institutions, and a public library, in which are preserved some curious MSS. Pop. '81, 38,103, who carry on the manufacture of linen, woolen cloth, hosiery, paper, etc., and an extensive traffic in the produce of the district, and in the transit trade between Paris and the s. of France. There are two mineral springs in the town, which are used for bathing. That of St. Alyre is most remarkable, having deposited in the course of ages an immense mass of limestone; and the deposit at one part forms over a rivulet a natural bridge 21 ft. long. The whole district abounds in such springs. A multitude of Roman antiquities attest the Roman origin of the city. In the middle ages, C. was the residence of the counts of the same name, and became the seat of one of the oldest bishoprics of France. Several ecclesiastical councils were held here, the most remarkable of which was that in 1095, at which the first crusade was instituted by Urban II. A statue has been erected to Pascal, who was a native of Clermont.

CLERMONT-DE-LODEVE, a t. in the department of Herault, 23 m. w.n. w. of Montpellier, agreeably situated on the declivity of a hill, crowned by the ruins of an old castle. situatectures of cloth. pp. 91, 6,000.

CLERMONT EN BEAUVOISIS (CLERMONT SUR OISE), a t. in France, 36 m. n. of Paris; pop. '81, 6,100. The town-hall, and church of St. Simon, date from the 13th c., and the hill on which the town is built is surmounted by an old castle of the 10th or C. was an important post in 11th c., now transformed into a penitentiary for women. the middle ages. It was frequently taken and retaken in the wars with the English, and in 1487 it was surrendered to them as a ransom for the French leader, La Hire. Cassini, the astronomer, was born here.

CLE RUS, a genus of insects of the order coleoptera, section pentamera, and of the great family or sub-section serricornes. They are beautiful beetles, generally found on flowers, and often on those of umbelliferous plants, but their larvæ feed on the larvæ of different kinds of bees: those of C. apiarius-a rare insect in Britain, but common in some parts of Europe-on the larvæ of the hive-bee. It is about half an inch long, greenish, the wing-cases scarlet with purplish blue bands. How the larvæ of this and other insects should be able to carry on their ravages with impunity in a bee-hive, has never yet been satisfactorily explained.

CLÉRY, JEAN BAPTISTE, 1759-1809; one of the devoted friends of Louis XVI., and one of the few attendants permitted to share his prison. A few days before the king's execution Louis shared a loaf of bread with C., that being the only proof of regard he was able to show him. C. published an account of the king's imprisonment.

CLÉSINGER, JEAN BAPTISTE AUGUSTE, b. 1820; a French sculptor who first became noted by his bust of Scribe. Among a great many works from his chisel are Fraternity," "Gypsy Girl," "Cleopatra in "Girl Bitten by a Serpent," "Liberty," the Presence of Cæsar,* statues of Louise of Savoy and Sappho; equestrian statues of Francis I. and Napoleon I., for the Louvre; busts of Charlotte Corday, the emperor of

Russia, etc. Clésinger married the daughter of the famous French authoress, George Sand. CLETHRA, a genus of shrubs of the order ericacea, containing 2 species: c. alnifolia, the white alder or sweet pepperbush, found from Canada to the gulf, and c. acuminata, common along the southern Alleghanies. The flowers are white, and those of c. alnifolia, fragrant.

CLEVELAND (Cliff-land), a wild mountainous district, with some picturesque fertile valleys, forming the e. part of the N. Riding of Yorkshire between Whitby and the Tees. Geologically, it consists of inferior oolite, but the coast and w. border are formed of lias. In the s. the hills rise 1300 to 1850 ft. Since 1851, hamlets have become populous towns, owing to the discovery of iron-stone in the hills. See MIDDLESBOROUGH.

CLEVELAND, port of entry, cap. of Cuyahoga co., O., and second city in the state in commerce and population; on the s. shore of lake Erie and at the mouth of the Cuyahoga river; lat. 41° 30′ 5′′ n.; long. 81° 42′ 6′′ w.; 138 m. n.e. of Columbus; 245 m. n.e. of Cincinnati; 183 m. s. w. of Buffalo. C. was surveyed in 1796 by gen. Moses Cleaveland, agent and director of the Connecticut land company, which purchased the western reserve; received its first settler in 1797, and in 1798 contained 6 families. In 1809 C. was made a co. seat, was incorporated Dec. 23, 1814, and in 1836 became a city. Ohio City, on the w. bank of the Cuyahoga, was united with it, 1855; East C. and Newburg, in 1872-73. The harbor, the best on the lake, consists of 300 acres of water enclosed by a breakwater constructed by the U. S. government at a cost of $1,200,000. In addition, piers project from each side of the river mouth for a distance of 1200 ft., giving a channel 200 ft. wide. C. has navigable communication with the Atlantic ocean; with the head of lake Superior, and with the Mississippi basin and the gulf of Mexico through the Ohio canal, which enters the Ohio river at Portsmouth. It was this canal, completed in 1834, that first gave an impetus to the commerce of the city. There are 13 lines of steamers, including daily lines to Detroit and to Buffalo and other lake Erie ports, and 10 railroads ; among them the Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis; Cleveland, Tuscarawas Valley and Wheeling; Cleveland and Pittsburg; Lake Shore and Michigan Southern; Cuyahoga Valley; New York, Chicago and St. Louis. The city has an altitude of 643 ft. above the sea; a mean summer temperature of 69.68°; winter, 28.32°. It covers an area of more than 27 sq.m., and has a water front of 74 m. The most beautiful part lies on a sandy bluff on the e. side of the river, from 60-150 ft. above the lake. Kingsbury and Walworth runs," tributaries of the Cuyahoga, intersect the city on the e. and w., and. a broad ship canal extends westward from the river for some distance.

C. is called the Forest City from the abundance of its shade trees. The sts, are broad as a rule, Superior st., one of the leading business thoroughfares, having a width of 132 ft. Euclid ave., devoted to residences, has a national reputation for its beauty. Of the numerous parks and pleasure-grounds, Monumental park, in the center of the city, has an area of 10 acres, and is divided by intersecting sts. into 4 squares. Lakeview park, on the shore, contains 84 acres ; Southside park, 8 acres; Wade park, the largest, and formerly private property, 83 acres; the Circle, a w. side park, has a handsome fountain. There are 17 cemeteries. Lakeview, 5 m. from C., covers 300 acres. Its chief monument is president Garfield's mausoleum, built at a cost of $250,000. Among the many bridges spanning the Cuyahoga and uniting the e. and w. side of the city is the viaduct of stone and iron, constructed 1874-78 at a cost of over $2,000,000. Its length is 3211 ft., its width 64 ft., including a roadway of 42 ft. It has a draw 332 ft. long, and is elevated 68 ft. above water level. The central viaduct is 2838 ft. long; the viaducts over Walworth and Kingsbury runs, 1092 and 835 ft. respectively.

Among noteworthy buildings are the U. S. building, containing the custom house, post-office, and rooms for the federal courts; county court-houses, city hall, masonic temple, house of correction, C. medical college, city infirmary, union depot, Case school of applied science, Adelbert college, Plymouth Congregational, First Presbyterian, and St. Paul's Episcopal churches, and the R. C. cathedral. The principal public statues are those of com. Perry and Moses Cleaveland.

The annual value of the coal trade exceeds $1,000,000. Nearly 125,000,000 tons of anthracite are brought every year from the Pennsylvania coal fields; and from those of the state, by 5 lines of railroad, 2,000,000 tons. The receipts of lumber are very large. The manufactures include iron and steel, refined petroleum, woolen goods, sulphuric acid, wooden-ware, agricultural implements, sewing-machines, railroad cars, marble, bricks, white lead, etc. The C. rolling mill employs 5000 men, has 4 furnaces for making Bessemer steel, and has a yearly capacity of 100,000 tons of steel rail. The yearly product of iron manufactures is estimated at $70,000,000, and fully 150 establishments are engaged in iron and steel manufactures.

The refining of petroleum is one of the leading industries. The oil works number 20, and the capital invested exceeds $3,000,000. The Standard oil company's works cover several acres, employ 3000 men, and when in full operation produce 12,000 barrels daily. The Brush electric light works and the Cowles aluminium works are located at C. Other industries are pork packing and the building of iron and steel vessels in 5 ship-yards. The establishments in 1880 numbered 1055; capital, $19,430,989; hands, 21,724; wages paid, $8,502,935; val. products (exclusive of refined petroleum and fishery products), $48,604,050. The value of imports, 1886-87, was $658,126; of domestic ex

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ports, $327,358. American vessels in the foreign trade entered, 71; ton. 7148; foreign vessels, 393; ton. 95,372. American vessels cleared, 101; ton. 17,698; foreign, 325; ton. 86,679. Vessels belonging to port: 111 sailing vessels, 93 steam vessels, and 1 barge; total ton. 123,888.58. There are about 120 docks, with total frontage of 4486 ft. There were, 1888, 7 national banks; aggregate capital, $5,400,000; 5 savings, etc., companies; 2 insurance companies, and a live-stock insurance association.

The first church (Cong.) was established in 1800. There are now over 150 churches, the Roman Catholic and Methodist denominations leading. There are 7 convents and a monastery. Among charitable institutions are the city infirmary; foundling, homeopathic, and charity (St. Vincent's) hospitals; U. S. marine hospital; women and children's free medical and surgical dispensary; Bethel (sailors') home; home for the aged poor (R. C.); Protestant orphan asylum; St. Mary's, St. Joseph's, and St. Vincent's orphan asylums; Jewish orphan asylum; the Open door, a temporary home for women; Trinity (church) home; northern Ohio insane asylum (state); a newsboys' and bootblacks' home, and a children's aid society. There were, 1886-87, 49 school buildings, including 24 containing both grammar and primary schools; children in schools, 33,150; teachers, 541; receipts for pub. schools, $644,493.45; expenses, $610,316.17, besides 2 high schools, a normal school, and a manual training school. The exhibition of equipments and work of the C. schools took the first prize at the Centennial exposition. The Roman Catholics have numerous parochial schools and a theological seminary (St. Mary's). The higher institutions are Adelbert coll., of Western Reserve univ. (until 1882 located at Hudson), and the Case school of applied science. The state law coll. is situated There at C., also the medical department of Western Reserve coll., and the C. medical coll. (attached to the univ. of Wooster). All possess valuable libraries and museums. is also a homeopathic medical coll., an academy of fine arts, and an educational bureau for adults of the working classes. Among libraries are the public, estab. 1869, with 49,000 vols.; mercantile ; Case, 20,000 vols.; C. law library, and those of the Kirtland society and the Western Reserve historical society. Of 85 newspapers, etc., 5 are daily, 34 weekly and Sunday issues, 22 monthly; 22 are published in German, 2 in Bohemian. Among places of amusement are the Euclid ave. opera house, Academy of music, New music hall, and Case hall.

The city is divided into 40 wards. The assessed value of real estate, 1887, was $67,926,380; personal, $25,702,030; receipts, $4,072,328.11; expenditures, $4,072,328.11. City debt, Jan. 1, 1888, $8,384,243.54. The police force numbers 233 men all told. There are 15 engine companies, 5 hook-and-ladder companies, and 203 alarm boxes. Water is obtained from the lake by means of a tunnel 1 m. long. The distributing reservoir, on the highest elevation w. of the river, has a capacity of 6,000,000 galls., and the entire cost of pipe and works was nearly $2,000,000. The Fairmont and Woodland Hills reservoirs have a total capacity of 120,000,000 galls. The militia comprises the first regiment, light artillery, and 5th reg. infantry, O. N. G.; battery A, C. light artillery, the Hibernian rifles, and C. Grays.

The population, 1810, was 57; 1820, 150; 1840, 6071; 59,409 foreign; 1888, est. 250,000.

CLEVELAND, co. Ark. See page 884.

1860, 43,417; 1880, 160,146—

CLEVELAND, CHARLES DEXTER, 1802-69; a native of Massachusetts, graduated at Dartmouth in 1827; professor of Latin and Greek at Dickinson college, and of Latin in the university of the city of New York. In 1861 he was appointed U. S. consul at Cardiff, Wales. Among his publications are The Moral Characters of Theophrastus; Compendium of Grecian Antiquities; Compendium of Grecian Literature; Hymns for Schools; English Literature of the Nineteenth Century; and Lyra Americana.

CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER. See page 884.

CLEVENGER, SHOBAL VAIL, 1812-43; b. Ohio. A stone-cutter by trade, he became a sculptor; made busts of Webster, Clay, and others; went to Florence to study, and was rapidly advancing, when consumption attacked him on a homeward voyage.

CLEVES (Ger. Kleve), a t. of Rhenish Prussia, 48 m. n.w. of Düsseldorf. It is situated on three gentle elevations, about 24 m. from the Rhine, with which it communicates by canal, in the midst of a rich and beautiful country. It is divided into an upper and a lower t., is well built, in the Dutch fashion, and surrounded by walls. It has a fine old C. has manufactures of castle, partly built on a commanding rock, in which Anne of Cleves, one of the wives of Henry VIII., was born, and an ancient collegiate church. woolen and cotton fabrics, silks, hosiery, tobacco, etc. Pop. '80, 10,000. C. was anciently the capital of a duchy extending along both banks of the Rhine, and which passed by marriage to the reigning house of Prussia.

CLEW is a name given to the lower corner of square sails and the aftermost lower corner of stay-sails. Clew-lines are the names of ropes for managing these corners ; clew-garnets are only applied to the courses, or largest sails of a ship; and to clew-up, is to haul up the C. of a sail.

CLEW BAY, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the w. coast of Mayo co., Ireland, 15 m. deep Old red sandstone, by 8 broad. Some of the mountains on the n. rise 1200 to 2500 ft., but the land on the e. is lower, and leads to Westport, Newport, and Castlebar.

1

Climate.

carboniferous limestone, and Cambrian strata form the shores of the bay, which are generally bold and rocky, but have many small harbors and fishing-stations. The upper part of the bay contains an archipelago, 300 fertile and cultivated islets. At the entrance of the bay is Clare isle, 44 by 2 m., composed of old red sandstone and Cambrian rocks, and rising 1520 feet.

CLICHE (Fr.), the impression made by a die in melted tin, or other fusible metal. It is the proof of a medalist's or die-sinker's work, by which they judge of the effect, and ascertain the stage of progress which they have reached before the die is hardened. The same term is applied by the French to stereotype casts from wood-cuts.

CLICHY, a suburb of Paris, in the department of Seine, about four m. n. w. of the capital. It has manufactures of white-lead and chemical products. Pop. 24,320.

CLICK-BEETLE, the popular name of many species of coleopterous insects of the tribe elaterides (see ELATER), the parents of the destructive larvæ too well known to farmers by the name of wire-worms (q.v.). They derive the name click-beetle from the sound which they make when, being laid on their back on any hard substance, they regain their feet by a spring, in the manner characteristic of the tribe to which they belong. The British species are numerous, the largest not quite half an inch long; none of them brilliantly colored; all very similar in form, rather elongated, and the thorax and abdomen nearly of equal breadth throughout. SKIP-JACK is another popular name for them. The striped click-beetle (agriotes [cataphagus or elater] lineatus) is the parent of a very destructive kind of wire-worm. See illus., BEETLES, ETC., vol. II., p. 386, fig. 57. CLIENT. See AGENT AND CLIENT. See also PRINCIPAL AND AGENT, PATRON, COUNSEL.

CLIFF-DWELLERS. See page 884.

CLIFFORD, JOHN H., LL.D. See page 884.

CLIFFORD, NATHAN. See page 884.

CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDON, F.R.S., late prof. of applied mathematics and mechanics at University college, London, and one of the foremost mathematicians of his time, was b. at Exeter, May 4, 1845. He was educated at a school in his native town, at King's college, London, and at Trinity college, Cambridge. While at Trinity, he did not confine himself to examination subjects, but read largely in the great mathematical writers, and was second wrangler in the mathematical tripos of 1867. At this time, while excelling in gymnastics, he would also solve and propound problems in the pages of the Educational Times, and could discuss with ease complicated theorems of solid geometry without the aid of paper or diagram. A high-churchman at first, C. before taking his degree threw off all conventional restraints, and eagerly discussed some of the religious questions of the day. In Aug., 1871, he was elected to the chair of mathematics and mechanics at University college, London, which post he retained until his untimely death at Madeira, Mar. 3, 1879. C. first established his reputation as an original thinker with the faculty of expressing scientific thought in plain and simple language by a lecture at the royal institution, On Some of the Conditions of Mental Development. He was a valued member of the London mathematical society, contributing to the Proceedings; for a time he acted as secretary, and afterwards vice-president of the mathematical and physical section of the British association; he also lectured to the Sunday lecture society on such subjects as Ether; Atoms; and The Sun's Place in the Universe. The versatility of his mind for philosophical and scientific discussion was further shown by his varied contributions to periodical literature. Besides these articles, he issued the first part of a larger text-book, Elements of Dynamics (1878).-See C.'s Lectures and Essays, edited by Leslie Stephen and F. Pollock, 1879.

CLIFTON, a beautiful and favorite watering-place in the s. w. of Gloucestershire, forming the western suburb and part of the parliamentary borough of Bristol. It is built on the sides and top of a carboniferous limestone hill, 308 ft. high; commands fine picturesque views; and is separated from a similar cliff by a deep chasm on the s., through which flows the navigable Avon. The rock abounds in fossils and quartz, or Bristol diamonds. It has a tepid spring of 73° F. which contains carbonic acid and salts of magnesia, and was brought into notice about 1695; but the former popularity of the spa has declined, and the pump-room has been destroyed. At the time of the great Lisbon earthquake, this water became red; and the Avon, which rises here 35 ft. at high water, suddenly turned back. On Clifton Down are some remains of a Roman camp, 510 by 300 feet. An extensive camp is in good preservation on the opposite side of the gorge, with which C. is connected by a suspension bridge, 275 ft. above low water, and 702 ft. in span. C. college ranks among the best English schools. See BRISTOL.

CLIFTON SPRINGS, N. Y. See page 885.

CLIFTON, a t. in Ontario, Canada, on the Niagara river, a m. below the falls; pop. '81, 2,347. It has a large trade with the United States, and is an important station on the Great Western, and Erie and Michigan railways. It is an attractive summer resort.

CLIMACTERIC YEAR. It was long believed that certain years in the life of man had a peculiar significance to him, and were the critical points, as it were, of his health and fortunes. The mystical number 7 and its multiples (e.g., 35, 49) constituted crises of this kind. The most important of all was the 63d year, called, by way of eminence, the "climacteric year" or "grand climacteric," which was supposed to be fatal to most

Climate.

men; its influence being attributed to the fact, that it is the multiple of the two mystical numbers 7 and 9.

CLIMATE (from the Greek klima, a slope or inclination, afterwards applied to a tract of country, with reference to its supposed inclination to the pole, and the effect of the obliquity of the sun's rays upon the temperature), a term now employed as including not merely the conditions of a place or country with regard to temperature, but also its meteorological conditions generally, in so far as they exercise an influence on the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The effect of the sun's rays is greatest where they fall perpendicularly on the surface of the earth, and diminishes as their obliquity increases; the surface which receives any given amount of the sun's rays increasing with their increased obliquity; whilst at the same time the oblique rays being subjected to the influence of a greater number of particles of the atmosphere, a greater amount of their heat is absorbed before they reach the surface of the earth at all. The greater or smaller extent of surface receiving a certain amount of heat, also makes important differences to arise from exposure by slope towards the equator or towards the nearest pole. Elevation is a most important cause of differences of climate. As we ascend from the level of the sea to the greatest mountain altitudes, even at the equator, the temperature gradually diminishes, owing to the diminished density of the atmosphere, and we reach a region of perpetual snow, as in approaching the poles. The progressive diminution of the temperature is, however, affected by many other causes, so that the line of perpetual snow is far from being at the same elevation in all places of the same latitude. Thus, the snow-line on the southern side of the Himalayas is depressed by the moisture of the aerial currents from the Indian ocean; and that on the northern side is elevated by the radiation of heat in the vast dry table-lands of Central Asia, and the consequent ascending streams of warm dry air; so that the difference between the two is not less than 4,000 ft. in favor of the northern side of the mountain-ranges; and Humboldt says, "millions of men of Thibetian origin occupy populous towns in a country where fields and towns would, during the whole year, have been buried in snow, if these table-lands had been less continuous and less extensive." As the actual temperature of the atmosphere depends not so much upon the direct rays of the sun as upon the radiation from the heated surface of the earth, the diversities in the character of that surface are productive of great effects in modifying climate. A sandy desert, a tract of country clothed with luxuriant vegetation, and an expanse of water, absorb and radiate heat in very different degrees. A newly plowed field both absorbs and radiates heat much more rapidly than a field covered with grass. A sandy desert heats the atmosphere above it much more than either a fertile tract or a watery expanse, and a watery expanse still less than a fertile tract; but, on the other hand, the desert cools sooner by radiation; whilst the heat absorbed by the water being diffused through a larger mass-partly by reason of the motion continually taking place in the fluid substance-and affecting greater depths, the influence of the ocean, of seas, and of great lakes, is very powerful in maintaining a greater equality in the temperature of the atmosphere. Thus maritime places, and particularly islands and peninsulas, have a more equal temperature, with less diversity of the extremes of summer and winter, than more inland or continental places otherwise similarly situated. The effect of the sea is modified by many circumstances, and particularly by currents, of which the Gulf stream (q.v.) affords a notable instance, the heated water conveyed by it from the equatorial to the polar regions having a great influence on the C., particularly of the n. w. of Europe. The temperature of Europe is also in part dependent on the warm s. winds, which have absorbed heat from the great sandy deserts of Africa; and over the world generally, atmospheric currents must be regarded as exercising even a greater influence on C. than oceanic currents. The quantity of rain or snow that falls in the course of a year, and the times and manner of its falling, are circumstances which have a great effect on climate. These are circumstances much influenced by the distribution of land and water, and by the elevation and character of the surface of the land, which, doubtless, also influence electric and other meteorological conditions, less understood, but certainly not unimportant.

The relations of C. to vegetation are determined not merely by the mean annual temperature, but in a great measure also-and, with regard to many plants, entirely-by the duration and C. of summer. Thus, maize, which may be mentioned as an important example, succeeds well in climates of which the winter-cold is severe, the summer season alone being sufficient for its whole life; whilst, on the other hand, such plants as fuchsias, some kinds of laurel, and even the common hawthorn, which succeed well enough where maize would scarcely put forth an ear, would perish from the colder winters of countries where it is profitably cultivated. The polar limit of particular species of animals, except those which hibernate, is generally determined by the degree of winter-cold which they can bear without injury.

Bogs and marshes exercise an unfavorable influence on C., cooling the air and causing fogs, as clay-soils also to some extent do, through their retentiveness of moisture; whilst marshes of some kinds, and in some situations, abound in exhalations very unfavorable to health. Similar remarks apply to large tracts of forest. The clearing, drainage, and cultivation of land have generally favorable effects on C.; although plantations are often beneficial for shelter; and a too complete removal of natural forests may pre