saint. C. was also a writer of Christian hymns, one of which, addressed to the Redeemer, is preserved. His collective works were first published at Florence in 1550.

CLEMENS, or CLEMENT, is the name of 17 popes, few of whom require any special notice. See POPES. CLEMENS ROMANUS, probably the C. mentioned in the Epistle to the Philippians, is assumed as the first of the series. He is accounted one of the apostolic fathers. He is said to have died as bishop of the church in Rome, in the year 102. Of his two Epistles to the Corinthians, the first and longest is undoubtedly genuine. But the apostolic canons and constitutions attributed to him are spurious, as well as the fabulous account of his journeys with the apostle Peter. This last has come down to us in two forms: one in Greek, divided into 19 homilies, under the title of Clementina; the other, a Latin translation by Rufinus, entitled Recognitiones Clementis. The Epistles have been edited by Muralt (Zurich, 1848), the Homilies by Schwegler (Stutt, 1847), and the Recognitiones by Gersdorf, in his Biblioth. Patr. Eccl., vol. i. (Leip. 1837).

CLEMENT II. (SUIDGER), a Saxon chancellor to the emperor Henry III. of Germany, who made him pope in Dec., 1046, on the abdication of Gregory VI. He died the next year.

CLEMENT III. (PAOLO or PAULINO SCOLARI, bishop of Prænesle), elected pope 1187; d. 1191. He settled some of the troubles between the popes and the Roman people by permitting the latter to elect their magistrates, while the nomination of the governor of the city was left to the pope. He incited Philip Augustus and Henry II. of England

to undertake the third crusade.

CLEMENT IV. (GUI FOULQUES, archbishop of Narbonne), chosen pope 1265; d. 1268. He had been secretary to Louis IX. of France, and when raised to the chair of St. Peter the papacy was at war with Manfred the Ghibelline usurper of Naples, and C. was compelled to enter Italy in disguise. He made an alliance with Charles of Anjou, the French pretender to the Neapolitan throne; Manfred was slain, and Charles formally established. C. is said to have disapproved of many of the harsh measures of Charles. He also encouraged and protected Roger Bacon.

CLEMENT V. (BERTRAND DE GOTH, archbishop of Bordeaux), chosen pope 1305. He removed the seat of the papacy to Avignon, and suppressed the order of templars. During his papacy, Henry VII. entered Italy, and was crowned in Rome by C.'s legate: but Henry died suddenly, leaving Italy in a condition of anarchy; the Roman barons were at the height of their dissension, and the Lateran palace was burned. C. suppressed in the bloodiest manner the heresy of Fra Dolcino, and died leaving a reputation disgraceful for nepotism, avarice, and cunning. He was the first pope to wear the triple crown. He died in 1314.

CLEMENT VI. (PIERRE ROGER, archbishop of Rouen), the fourth of the popes of Avignon, elected 1342; d. 1352. He was entirely under French influence, refused an invitation to return to Rome, and purchased the sovereignty of Avignon from Joanna, queen of Naples, agreeing to pay her 80,000 crowns. He never paid the money, but probably deemed that he had given its equivalent when he absolved the queen for the murder of her husband. He disputed with Edward III. of England concerning that monarch's encroachments upon ecclesiastical jurisdiction, excommunicated Louis of Bavaria, and made some negotiations for a reunion with the eastern church.

CLEMENT VII. (GIULIO DE MEDICI), elected pope 1523; d. 1534. His worldliness and lack of insight into the tendencies of the age disqualified him from comprehending the great religious movement which then convulsed the church, while his timidity and indecision no less disabled him from following a consistent policy in secular affairs. He was at first attached to the imperial interest, but by the overwhelming success of the emperor in the battle of Pavia was terrified into joining the other Italian princes in a league with France. But his zeal soon cooled, and by want of foresight and unreasonable economy he laid himself open to an attack from the turbulent Roman barons which obliged him to invoke the mediation of the emperor. When this danger seemed past, he veered back to his former engagements, and ended by drawing upon himself the host of the imperialist gen., the constable Bourbon, who led his army against Rome, and assaulted and sacked the city, May 5, 1527. The pope retired to the castle of San Angelo, and was there kept a prisoner for six months. He was released upon very onerous conditions, and for several years afterwards followed a policy of subserviency to the emperor, on the one hand endeavoring to induce him to act with severity against the Lutherans of Germany, and on the other striving to elude his demand for a general council. One consequence of this dependence on Charles V. was the breach with England occasioned by the pope's refusal to sanction Henry VIII.'s divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

CLEMENT VIII. (IPPOLITO ALDOBRANDINI), elected to the papacy 1592; d. 1605. He brought about the reconciliation of the church with Henry IV. of France; and to him Europe was indebted for the peace of Vervins (1598) which put an end to the long contest between France and Spain. He also annexed Ferrara to the states of the church, the last addition of importance to the pope's temporal dominion. The only serious stain upon his character was the execution of Giordano Bruno, Feb. 17, 1600.

CLEMENT IX. (GIULIO ROSPIGLIOSI), elected pope 1667; d. 1669. He adjusted the disputes between the Roman see and those prelates of the Gallican church who had refused to join in condemning the writings of Jansenius.

CLEMENT X. (EMILIO ALTIERI), chosen pope 1670; d. 1676. He was 80 years old when elected, and in consequence of infirmity he left the government to his nephew, cardinal Altieri, whose interference with the privilege of ambassadors occasioned disputes in which the pope was obliged to yield.

CLEMENT XI. GIOVANNI FRANCESCO ALBANI, elected pope 1700; d. 1721. The most memorable event of his rule was the publication in 1713 of the bull Unigenitus, which so greatly disturbed the peace of the Gallican church. By this famous document 101 propositions extracted from the works of Quesnel were condemned as heretical, and as identical with propositions already condemned in the writings of Jansenius. The resistance of many French ecclesiastics, and the refusal of French parliaments to register the bull, led to controversies extending through the greater part of the 18th century. Another important decision by this pope forbade the Jesuit missionaries to take part in idolatrous worship, or to accommodate Christian language to Pagan ideas under plea of conciliating the heathen.

CLEMENT XII. LORENZO CORSINI, pope from July, 1730, to Feb., 1740. He was the first pope to condemn the order of Freemasons.

CLEMENT XIII. CARLO REZZONICO, Bishop of Padua, chosen pope 1758; d. 1769, it was suspected from poison. In his time France, Spain, and Portugal urgently demanded the suppression of the Jesuits, but Clement warmly supported them. The pressure, however, became so strong that he was supposed to be about to give way, and had convoked a consistory, when he died very suddenly, and thus the Jesuits were saved for the time.

CLEMENT XIV., GIOVANNI VINCENZO ANTONIO GANGANELLI, was b. in 1705 at St. Arcangelo, near Rimini, where his father was a physician. At the age of 18, he entered the order of Minorites, and studied philosophy and theology, which he then successfully taught. His merits were appreciated by the keen-sighted Benedict XIV., who appointed him to the important post of counselor to the inquisition, and under Clement XIII. he was made a cardinal. On the death of Clement XIII., he succeeded to the papal chair, May 19, 1769. No pope had ever been elected under greater difficulties. The kings of Portugal, France, Spain, and Naples were at variance with C., chiefly on account of his support of the Jesuits; Venice wished to reform the religious orders without his interference; Poland was seeking to diminish his influence; the Romans themselves were discontented. C. first set about reconciling the monarchs; he sent a nuncio to Lisbon, suspended the bull In Cana Domini, and entered into negotiations with Spain and France. After several years of negotiation, he issued, 1773, the famous brief Dominus ac Redemptor noster, suppressing "forever" the society of the Jesuits. The motive assigned in the brief is, "regard to the peace of the church." From this time his life was made miserable by constant fear, and his strength gradually gave way. He died of a scorbutic disease, Sept. 22, 1774. C. was remarkable for liberality of mind, address as a statesman, sound learning, and mildness of character. He cherished the arts and sciences, and was the founder of the Clementine museum, which, by the additions of Pius VI. and Pius VII., became the chief ornament of the Vatican.

CLÉMENT, JACQUES, 1565-89; a monk who was selected by the leader of the league for the assassination of Henry III. The day before the murder C. fasted, partaking only of the Lord's supper. In the morning, Aug. 1, 1589, he was admitted to the palace as the bearer of a letter, and while the king was reading it he stabbed him. Henry threw the knife into the assassin's face, exclaiming "Oh; the wicked monk! he has killed me! put him to death!" He was immediately killed, and his body quartered and burned. The king died the next day, and the murderer was declared a martyr by Bourgoing and other Roman Catholic prelates.

CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. See CLEMENS, TITUS FLAVIUS.

CLEMENTI, MUZIO, one of the best of pianists and composers for the pianoforte, was b. at Rome in 1750 or 1752. His skill on the pianoforte, when only 13 years of age, secured for him the notice of a Mr. Beckford, an English gentleman traveling in Italy, with whom C. went to England, and in whose family he remained for several years, studying the works of the great composers, and where he also acquired an extensive knowledge of literature. His "Opera 2" (composed in his 18th year) is considered the model on which the whole modern pianoforte sonatas have been founded. After traveling on the continent for some time, he returned to England, where he obtained the highest reputation as a teacher. Pecuniary misfortunes induced him, in the year 1800, to commence business as a music-seller and manufacturer of pianofortes. He died in London, Mar. 10, 1832. His compositions, mostly pianoforte sonatas, are full of pleasant melody, and arranged in masterly style. For students, his classical Introduction to Pianoforte Playing, and his last work, the Gradus ad Parnassum, have been highly recommended His style of playing was brilliant, and in improvisation he excelled all his predecessors.

CLEMENTINES, a collection of papal decrees and constitutions published by pope Clement V. in 1313. They constitute five books and 52 titles in the Corpus Jurus Can

onica.

CLEMMER, MARY (formerly Mrs. Ames). See page 883.

CLEOBU'LUS, one of the seven sages of Greece, the son of Evagoras, and a native of Lindus, over which town he was ruler. He was celebrated for strength and beauty of person, the wisdom of his sayings, the acuteness of his riddles, and the elegance of his lyrics. A letter of his inviting Solon to take refuge with him from Pisistratus indicates that C. was alive in 560 B.C. His son Cleobuline was quite as famous for riddles.

In

CLEOM BROTUS I., a son of Pausanias, and king of Sparta in 380 B.C. He was the leader of the army on several expeditions, but without remarkable success. 371 he went against the Thebans, but was disastrously defeated by Epaminondas. C. was mortally wounded in this battle, which took place at Leuctra.

CLEOME DES, a Greek writer on astronomy. Nothing is known regarding his life, nor the period when he flourished. His treatise is entitled The Circular Theory of the Heavenly Bodies, and is remarkable as containing, amid much error and ignorance, several truths of modern science-such as the spherical shape of the earth, the revolution of the moon about its axis, its revolution round the earth, etc. C.'s treatise was first printed in Latin by Geo. Valla (Ven. 1498); in Greek, by Conrad Neobarius (Par. 1529). The two latest editions are those of Janus Bake (Lugd. Bat. 1820) and C. C. T. Schmidt (Leip. 1832).

CLEOM ENES I., King of Sparta about 519 B.C. He led a Spartan force to Athens in 510 to aid in the expulsion of Hippias; and he was afterwards called in to support the Athenian oligarchical party led by Isagoras against the party of Clisthenes. On a technical charge of pollution, he banished 7,000 families, and established a new constitution, transferring the old senate to 300 of the oligarchical party. He was soon afterwards forced to leave the city. He made another unsuccessful attempt to sustain Isagoras. When the Ionian colonies revolted from Persia, their leader, Aristagoras, came to seek aid from Sparta, and tried to bribe Cleomenes to join him, offering higher and higher sums, until Cleomenes' daughter, Gorgo (afterwards the wife of Leonidas), eight or nine years old, said, "Father, go away, or the stranger will corrupt you.' During a local war between Sparta and Argos, Cleomenes, by a stratagem, defeated the Argive forces near Tiryns. Those who escaped from the battle took refuge in a sacred grove, which Cleomenes ordered to be set on fire, and 6,000 of the flower of Argive citzens perished in the flames, a loss from which Argos was long in recovering. Another legend is that Argos was defended against Cleomenes by the women of the city. In the later years of his life C. became insane, and was kept in confinement; but he prevailed upon a slave to bring him a knife, with which he killed himself.

CLEOM'ENES III., the last king of Sparta of the Agidæ, came to the throne in 240 B.C. He desired to restore the old constitution and discipline of Lycurgus, and also to destroy the Achæan league. The league was defeated in a great battle at the foot of Mt. Lycæum. In Sparta, Cleomenes found active opponents in the ephors, but he crushed them by surrounding the hall in which they were feasting, and slaughtering them in a body. Then he established a new constitution, abolished the ephors, restoring the old prerogatives of the kings, making a re-distribution of lands, and extending the franchise. But in the war which ensued with the Achæan league he was defeated in the battle of Sellasia, 222 B. C., when the death-blow was given to the independence of Sparta. Cleomenes fled to Egypt, but came back some years later and headed an insurrection against the king. The plot failed, and Cleomenes committed suicide.

CLE'ON, a famous Athenian demagogue, who flourished during a part of the Peloponnesian war, was originally a tanner, but having a strong bias towards politics, he gradually abandoned his business, and became the champion of popular "rights.' He first became prominent in the discussion regarding the fate of the Mytilenæan prisoners, 427 B.C. C. advocated the massacre of the males, carried his point, and more than 2,000 perished; the rest were saved through the remorse of the Athenians. In 425 B.C., along with Demosthenes, he commanded an expedition against the island of Sphacteria, which was garrisoned by the Lacedemonians, and, much to the surprise of every one, succeeded in reducing the place; but the whole merit of this deed is usually attributed to his colleague. C. himself, however, was highly elated with his success, and his countrymen, or, at least, many of them, appear to have fancied that he really possessed military genius, for in 422 B.C. he was sent to oppose Brasidas, the Spartan general, in Macedonia and Thrace. On his way thither, he took Torone, a town in which Brasidas had left a small garrison, and afterwards Galepsus. But the great design of the campaign was the capture of Amphipolis, where Brasidas was stationed. C. somewhat reluctantly advanced, and began to reconnoiter. While he was so doing, Brasidas made an unexpected sally, and in the battle which ensued both leaders were slain. The Athenian army, however, was defeated, and obliged to retreat. The general opinion of C. is not favorable. He is painted both by Thucydides and Aristophanes as an ignorant, vain, blustering, and cowardly mobo

Clerc.

crat. Most modern historians have accepted this estimate of the man; but Grote, in his History of Greece, has thrown very considerable doubt on its truth, and has labored to show that he was the rough but resolute champion of the people, and that his character has been vilified and abused by Aristophanes, who was there can be no doubt-violently aristocratic.

CLEOPATRA, the daughter of the Egyptian king, Ptolemy Auletes, was b. 69 B.C., and, according to the will of her father, should have inherited the throne along with her brother, Ptolemy Dionysus, who was also her husband. Her claim. however being opposed, Julius Cæsar came to Alexandria, 48 B.C., to interpose in the quarrel, and in the Alexandrian war, Ptolemy Dionysus fell, and C., who was now married to her younger brother, Ptolemy, a boy of eleven years, was established upon the throne of Egypt. She bore a son to Cæsar, who was named Cæsarion. On her visiting Rome, Cæsar received her with great magnificence, and placed her statue in the temple which he had built to Venus Genitrix. In the civil war, after Cæsar's assassination, C. at first hesitated which side to take. After the battle of Philippi, Antony summoned her to appear before him at Tarsus, in Cilicia, to give account of her conduct. C., who had in the mean time got quit of the youthful Ptolemy by poison, appeared in the character of Venus Anadyomene, and so fascinated Antony, that he ever afterwards remained devoted to her.. They spent the winter, 41-40 B.C., in Alexandria, in revelry; and Antony, although he had in the mean time married Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, returned to the embraces of C., who met him at Laodicea, in Syria, 36 B.C., and accompanied him to the Euphrates. His general residence from this time was with her at Alexandria. He bestowed upon her and upon her children great estates, which, however, he had no right so to dispose of. Upon this and other accounts, he became the object of great detestation at Rome, and war was declared against C., Antony being now regarded as her general. At her instigation, he risked the great naval battle of Actium (q.v.); and when she fled with 60 ships, he forgot everything else, and hastened after her. When Octavianus appeared before Alexandria, C. entered into private negotiations with him for her own security, which treachery becoming known to Antony, he vowed revenge; but a report coming to him that she had committed suicide, he thought it impossible to survive her, and fell upon his sword. Mortally wounded, and learning that the report which he had heard was false, he caused himself to be carried into her presence, and died in her arms. Octavianus, by artifice, succeeded in making her his prisoner. Failing to make any impression upon him, and finding that he spared her life only that she might grace his triumph at Rome, she took poison, or, as is said, killed herself by causing an asp to bite her arm. Her death took place in Aug., 30 B. C. Her body was buried beside that of Antony, and Octavia brought up the children whom she had born to Antony as if they had been her own.

CLEPSY DRA, an ancient Greek musical instrument, described by Athenæus as having pipes which were made to produce a soft sound by the agitation of water forcing air into them. There were levers for admitting the water, thus forming a kind of hydraulic organ.

CLEPSYDRA (Gr. klepto, I conceal, hydor, water), an instrument for measuring time by the efflux of water through a small orifice. Two kinds have been in use-one wherein the fluid is simply allowed to escape through the orifice; the other, in which the uniformity of the flow is secured by maintaining the fluid at a constant level in the instru ment. The first would, like a sand glass, give only an accurate measure of the time occupied in the escape of the whole fluid: of a shorter time, it would be an inaccurate measure, as the pressure under which the escape takes place at the commencement is greater than at any instant thereafter, and constantly diminishes with the height of the fluid column. In the second, the flow must be nearly uniform; and if the water be received into a uniform graduated tube as it escapes, we have a tolerably good clock. The rate of the flow, however, is affected by temperature and barometric pressure. The C. is supposed to have been used among the Chaldeans. The Romans employed it extensively. The invention of the pendulum has superseded it in modern times.

CLERC, JEAN LE, better known as JOHANNES CLERICUS, was b. at Geneva, Mar. 29, 1657, where his father was a clergyman. From an early period, he showed a particular aptitude for the study of ancient languages, and in this department he is still a conspicuous name. He also paid great attention to theology, and his numerous controversial writings brought him no mean reputation during his lifetime. Before he was 20, C. had imbibed heterodox opinions in religion. In 1678, he went as tutor te Grenoble, where he remained for two years; in 1680, he returned to Geneva, and was appointed to the clerical office. All the while, his objections to the accepted theology of the day had been growing: the works of Curcellæus and of Episcopius confirmed this antipathy, and now he appeared as Liberius de St. Amore, the writer of 11 letters against the errors of the scholastic theologians-in short, as the partisan of the Dutch remonstrants. In the latter part of 1681, C. left Saumur, whither he hand gone to perfect his French, and went to Grenoble, and thence to London, where he preached six months to the Savoy congregation. Finally, he was appointed professor of philosophy, classical literature, and Hebrew at the remonstrant seminary of Amsterdam. He died 8th Jan., 1736. C.'s writings are very numerous; but his greatest service to posterity

Clésinger.

was the publication of a quarterly, the Bibliothèque Universelle et Historique (1686-93, 25 vols., in 8vo), followed up by the Bibliothèque Choisie (1703-13), and the Bibliothèque Ancienne et Moderne (1714-27). Other works of C.'s are-Harmonia Evangelica (1700); Traduction du Nouveau Testament avec des Notes (1703); Ars Critica (3 vols., 1712-30); and Traité de l'Incrédulité (1733). The first two are Socinian in their tendency. C.'s ration alism is still more manifest in a work entitled Sentimens de quelques Théologiens de Hollande touchant l'Histoire Critique du Vieux Testament, in which the special inspiration of the Scriptures is denied. His editions of several of the ancient classics prove both his learning and acumen.

CLERC, LAURENT, 1785-1869; b. France; he was a deaf mute, and without the sense of smelling, having when an infant fallen into a fire, seriously burning his face and head. He was taught in the institution for the deaf and dumb in Paris, becoming the favorite pupil of the abbe Sicard, and after eight years of study became himself a teacher. In 1816, he came to the United States with the Rev. Dr. Gallaudet, and the next year the two opened an institution for the deaf and dumb in Hartford, Conn. Clerc was a teacher of deaf mutes for more than half a century. At the age of 34, he married Miss Boardman, a deaf mute, who bore him several children, all of whom had the sense of hearing and could speak. His oldest son became an Episcopal clergyman.

CLERGY (Gr. clēros, a lot, an inheritance), a term very generally applied to the ministers of the Christian religion, in contradistinction to the laity (q.v.). This use of the term is very ancient, and appears to have gradually become prevalent, as the ministers of religion more and more exclusively, instead of the members of the Christian church equally, began to be regarded as God's "heritage" and "priesthood" (1 Pet. ii. 9, and v. 3), consecrated to him, and peculiarly his. The distinction between the C. and the laity became more marked through the multiplication of offices and titles among the C., the ascription to them of a place in the Christian church similar to that of the priests and Levites in the Jewish church, with peculiar rights and privileges, their assumption of a peculiar dress and of official insignia, the growth of monastic institutions, and the introduction of celibacy. In harmony with the notions on which this distinction is founded, is that of an indelible or almost indelible character derived from ordination, so that a renunciation of the clerical office is either viewed as an impossibility, or a sort of apostasy, These notions in their highest degree belong to the church of Rome. In the Protestant churches, the distinction between C. and laity is much less wide; and although the same terms are often used, it is rather conventionally than in their full signification. The employment of official robes by the C. preceded their assumption of a peculiar ordinary dress, and is not so intimately connected with any peculiar pretensions. Among the privileges accorded to the C. by the Roman emperors, and in the middle ages, was exemption from civil offices; among the rights asserted by them, and which caused much dispute, was exemption from lay jurisdiction, even in cases of felony. The C. were distinguished into the higher C. and the lower C., the latter including janitors, acolytes, lectors, exorcists, etc. The term secular C. is the designation of priests of the church of Rome who are not of any religious order, but have the care of parishes. Monks who are in holy orders are designated regular clergy. See BENEFIT OF CLERGY.

CLERK, in the middle ages, designated an ecclesiastic-the term indicating a man of science or of learning-extended at a later period to mean a complimentary title for men of learning, whether of the church or not. In modern times it indicates any one who makes and keeps records, public or private; but in the law it is still an appellation of the clergy. In the United States there is an official clerk to each house of congress, and to each house of a state legislature; also there are county, city, and town clerks, and others of lesser importance. In the law, the clerk is an important officer of any court. In mercantile and other business life there are almost innumerable varieties of clerks.

CLERK, SHIP's, is a civil officer on board a ship of war, under the immediate orders of the captain. He keeps all the captain's documents, which are very numerous; such as the ship's log, remarks on coasts and anchorages, the muster-book, etc.

CLERK, JOHN, of Eldin, Mid-Lothian, Scotland, inventor of the modern British system of breaking the enemy's line at sea, was the 6th son of sir John Clerk of Penicuick, bart. Though not a naval man, he studied deeply both the theory and practice of naval tactics, and in 1779 communicated to his friends a new maneuver for "breaking the enemy's line" in a naval battle. Visiting London the following year, he had some conferences on the subject with naval officers, among whom was sir Charles Douglas, lord Rodney's captain of the fleet in the memorable action of April 12, 1782, when the experiment was tried for the first time, and a decisive victory gained over the French. The principle was adopted by all British admirals, and led to many signal naval victories. In 1782, C. printed 50 copies of his Essay on Naval Tactics, for private distribution among his friends. It was reprinted and published in 1790; the 2d, 3d, and 4th parts were added in 1797; and the work was republished entire in 1804, with a preface explaining the origin of his discoveries. The maneuver was claimed by sir Howard