Cryptography. cessions (elsewhere denied) to the Catholics of Ireland, was composed in an alphabet of 24 short strokes variously situated upon a line. Other letters by the same monarch are to appearance a mere series of numbers of two and three figures, divided by semicolons. In such cases, it was necessary that the two parties in the correspondence should have previously concerted what words each number was to represent. Bacon devised what he thought a not easily penetrable cipher, in which he employed only a and b, arrang. ing each of these in groups of 5, in such collocations as to represent all the 24 letters. Thus, aabab ababa babba conveyed the word fly. The great philosopher thought that preconcertment would here be necessary; but in reality any clever modern decipherer would have found no difficulty in reading any long letter composed in such a manner The unfortunate earl of Argyle, when preparing his expedition against the tyrannical government of James II., used a mode of secret writing which consisted in setting down the words at certain intervals, which he afterwards filled up with other words, making on the whole something intelligible, but indifferent. In our day, such a mode would not have been found proof against the ingenuity of those who have studied the means of decipherment. There are many other modes of secret writing, which it does not seem necessary to detail, as the art has become little more than a matter of curiosity. One of the ablest and amplest treatments of the subject is an article by Dr. William Blair in Rees's Cyclopædia. See also Chambers's Journal, No. 506 (Second series), under "Secrets Exposed," and Nos. 87 and 115, under "Cryptographs." CRYPTOGRAPHY (ante), secret writing, or writing to understand which the recipient must know the key. Such modes of communication have been in use from the earliest times. The Lacedæmonians, according to Plutarch, had a method which has been called the scytale, from the staff employed in constructing and deciphering the message. When the Spartan ephors wished to forward their orders to their commander abroad, they wound slantwise a narrow slip of parchment upon the staff so that the edges met close together, and the message was then added in such a way that the center of the line of writing was on the edge of parchment. When unwound, the scroll consisted of broken letters; and in that condition it was dispatched to its destination; the general to whose hands it came deciphering it by means of a staff exactly corresponding to that used by the ephors. Polybius has enumerated other methods of cryptography. The art was in use also among the Romans. Upon the revival of letters, methods of secret correspondence were introduced into private business, diplomacy, plots, etc.; and as the study of this art has always presented attractions to the ingenious, a curious body of literature has been the result. John Trithemius, the abbot of Spanheim, was the first important writer on cryptography. His Poligraphia, published in 1500, has passed through many editions, and has supplied the basis upon which subsequent writers have worked. It was begun at the desire of the duke of Bavaria; but Trithemius did not at first intend to publish it, on the ground that it would be injurious to public interests. The next treatises of importance were those of John Baptist Porta, a Neapolitan mathematician, who wrote De Furtivis Literarum Notis, 1563; and of Blaise de Vigenere, whose Traité des Chiffres appeared in Paris in 1587. Lord Verulam proposed an ingenious system of cryptography on the plan of what is called the double cipher; but while thus lending to the art the influence of his great name, he gave an intimation as to the general opinion formed of it and as to the classes of men who used it; for when prosecuting the earl of Somerset in the matter of the poisoning of Overbury, he urged it as an aggravation of the crime that the earl and Overbury "had ciphers and jargons for the king and queen and all the great men-things seldom used but either by princes and their ambassadors and ministers, or by such as work or practice against or, at least, upon princes." Other eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with the art. John Wilkins, subsequently bishop of Chester, published in 1641 an anonymous treatise entitled Mercury, or The Secret and Swift Messenger, a small but comprehensive work on the subject, and a timely gift to the diplomatists and leaders of the civil war. The deciphering of many of the royalist papers of that period, such as the letters that fell into the hands of the parliament at the battle of Naseby, has by Henry Stubbe been charged on the celebrated mathematician, Dr. John Wallis, whose connection with the subject of cipher-writing is referred to in the Oxford edition of his mathematical works, 1689; as also by John Davys. Dr. Wallis states that this art, formerly scarcely known to any but the secretaries of princes, etc., had grown very common and familiar during the civil commotion, so that now there is scarcely a person of quality but is more or less acquainted with it, and doth, as there is occasion, make use of it." Subsequent writers on the subject are John Falconer, Cryptomenysis Patefacta, 1685; John Davys, An Essay on the Art of Deciphering in which is inserted a Discourse of Dr. Wallis, 1787; Philip Thicknesse, A Treatise on the Art of Deciphering and of Writing in Cipher, 1772: William Blair (the writer of the comprehensive article "Cipher" in Rees's Cyclopædia), 1819; and C. von Marten, Cours Diplomatique, 1801, a fourth edition of which appeared in 1851. Perhaps the best modern work on this subject is the Kryptographik of J. L. Kluber, who was drawn into the investigation by inclination and official circumstances. In this work the different methods of cryptography are classified. Amongst others of less merit who have treated on this art, may be named Gustavus Selenus (i.e. Augustus, duke of Brunswick), 1624; Cospi, translated by Niceron in 1641; the marquis of Worces Crystallography. ter, 1659; Kircher, 1663; Schoot, 1665; Hiller, 1682; Comiers, 1690, Baring, 1737; Con. rad, 1739, etc. Schemes of cryptography are endless in their variety. Bacon lays down the following as the " virtues" to be looked for in them: "that they be not laborious to write and read; that they be impossible to decipher; and, in some cases, that they be without suspicion." The principles are more or less disregarded by all the modes that have been advanced, including that of Bacon himself, which has been unduly extolled by his admirers as one of the most ingenious methods of writing in cipher, and the most difficult to be deciphered, of any yet contrived." The simplest and commonest of all ciphers is that in which the writer selects in place of the proper letters certain other letters in regular advance. This method of transposition was used by Julius Cæsar. He, "per quartam elementorum literam," wrote d for a, e for b, and so on. There are instances of this arrangement in the Jewish rabbis, and even in the sacred writers. An illustration of it occurs, Jeremiah xxv. 26, where the prophet, to conceal the meaning of his prediction from all but the initiated, writes Shehach instead of Babel (Babylon), the place meant: i.e., in place of using the second and twelfth letters of the Hebrew alphabet (B, b, 1), counting from the beginning, he wrote the second and twelfth (sh, sh, ch), counting from the end. To this kind of cipher-writing Buxtorf gives the name Athbash (from a, the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and th the last; b, the second from the beginning, and h, the second from the end). Another Jewish cabalism of like nature was called Albam; of which an example is in Isaiah vii. 6, where Tabeal is written for Remaliah. In its adaptation to English this method of transposition, of which there are many modifications, is comparatively easy to decipher. A rough key may be derived from an examination of the respective quantities of letters in a type-founder's bill, or a printer's "case." The decipherer's first business is to classify the letters of the secret message in the order of their frequency. The letter that occurs oftenest is e; and the next in order of frequency is t. The following groups come after these, separated from each other by degrees of decreasing recurrence: a, o, n, i, r, s, h; d, l; c, wo, u, m; f, y, g, p, b; v, k, x, q, j, z. All the single letters must be a, I, or 0. Letters occurring together are ee, oo, ff, l, 88, The commonest words of two letters are (roughly arranged in the order of their frequency) of, to, in, it, is, be, he, by, or, as, at, an, so, etc. The commonest words of three letters are the and and (in great excess), for, are, but, not, etc.; and of four letters: that, with, from, have, this, they, etc. Familiarity with the composition of the language will suggest numerous other points of value to the decipherer. He may obtain other hints from Poe's tale called The Gold Bug. As to messages in the continental languages constructed upon this system of transposition, rules for deciphering may be derived from Breithaupt's Ars Decifratoria, 1737, and other treatises. etc. Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly in letters and alphabets, yet they might be in words. Upon this basis codes have been constructed, classified with words taken from dictionaries being made to represent complete ideas. In recent years such codes have been adapted by merchants and others to communications by telegraph, and have served the purpose not only of keeping business affairs private, but also of reducing the excessive cost of telegraphic messages to distant markets. Obviously this class of ciphers present greater difficulties to the skill of the decipherer. Figures and other characters have been also used as letters; and with them ranges of numerals have been combined as the representatives of syllables, parts of words, words themselves, and complete phrases. Under this head must be placed the dispatches of Giovanni Michael, the Venetian ambassador to England in the reign of queen Mary, documents which have only of late years been deciphered. Many of the private letters and papers from the pen of Charles I. and his queen, who were adepts in the use of ciphers, are of the same description. One of that monarch's letters, a document of considerable interest, consisting entirely of numerals purposely complicated, was in 1858 deciphered by prof. Wheatstone, the inventor of the ingenious crypto-machine, and printed by the Philobiblon society. Other letters of like character have been published in the First Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts. In the second and subsequent reports of the same commission, several keys to ciphers have been catalogued, which seem to refer themselves to the methods of cryptography under notice. In this connection also should be mentioned the "characters" which the diarist Pepys drew up when clerk to sir George Downing and secretary to the earl of Sandwich and to the admiralty, and which are frequently mentioned in his journal. Pepys described one of them as "a great large character," over which he spent much time, but which was at length finished, 25th April, 1660; "it being, says he, "very handsomely done and a very good one in itself, but that not truly alphabetical." Shorthand marks and other arbitrary characters have also been largely imported into cryptographic systems to represent both letters and words-commonly the latter. This plan is said to have been first put into use by the old Roman poet Ennius. It forms the basis of the method of Cicero's freedman, Tiro, who seems to have systematized the labors of his predecessors. A large quantity of these characters have been engraved in Gruter's Inscriptiones. The correspondence of Charlemagne was in part made upon marks of this nature. In Rees's Cyclopædia, specimens were engraved of the cipher used by cardinal Wolsey at the court of Vienna in 1524, of that used by sir Thomas 499 Crystallography. Smith at Paris in 1563, and of that of sir Edward Stafford at Madrid in 1586; in all of Other devices have been An excellent modification of the key-word principle was constructed by the late admiral sir Francis Beaufort; it has been recently published in view of its adaptation to teleCiphers have been constructed on the principle of altering the The message is first written grams and post-cards. places of the letters without changing their powers. Chinese-wise upward and downward, and the letters are then combined in given rows from left to right. In the celebrated cipher used by the earl of Argyle when plotting against James II., he altered the position of the words. Sentences of an indifferent nature were constructed, but the real meaning of the message was to be gathered from The wheel-cipher, which words placed at certain intervals. This method, which is connected with the name of Cardan, is sometimes called the trellis or card-board cipher. is an Italian invention, the string-cipher, the circle-cipher, and many others, are fully explained, with the necessary diagrams, in the authorities named above-more particularly by Kluber in his Kryptographik. CRYSTAL ISLANDS. See CORAL ISLANDS. CRYSTALLINE ROCKS, a name given to all rocks, having a crystalline structure. They are found belonging to every division of the crust of the earth, but are especially abundant in the most ancient azoic rocks; the greater proportion of intruded igneous When attempting in the laboratory to produce crystals, rocks also possess this structure. it is known that the building material must exist in a fluid condition, and this is obtained either by heating to fusion or by solution. It has been asserted that all C. R. have been produced under similar circumstances; and no one can doubt that lavas and more ancient rocks having a similar origin, have assumed this structure while solidifying from a condition of igneous fusion, while rock-salt is as certainly obtained from a saturated solution of salt. There are, however, many rocks, such as some fossiliferous limestones, in which this structure occurs, where it is not possible to conceive of their being in either condition. It is known that crystallization takes place in solid material, as in the axles of We know not what is railway carriages, or in the crystals of pyrites in the chalk, where the iron has been gathered from the surrounding material while in a solid state. rance. the force that induces such a change in solid materials; it may be called metamorphic Csoma. more substances; and C. is the science which classifies the forms and shows the rela tions that subsist among them. The great majority of substances are capable of undergoing the process of crystallization, the exceptions being principally complex organic substances which tend to assume a globular or spherical form approaching that of organized structures. The most favorable condition for the crystallization of any substance is from its solution in water or other liquid. A liquid usually dissolves more of a salt when warm than when cold; and when a warm saturated solution is allowed to cool, a portion of the salt deposits itself in crystals. This process is that which is generally followed in the crystallization of saline substances. A second process resorted to in the case of the metals, such as bismuth, antimony, etc., and sulphur, is to fuse the material in a vessel, and when it is cooled down, so as partially to solidify the mass, the crust is broken through, and the liquid still remaining is poured off, when a net-work of crystals is obtained. A third method is to vaporize the substance, which on condensation resolves itself into crystals. Examples of this class are the formation of snow crystals from the water-vapor in the atmosphere, and the minute black crystals of iodine obtained by allowing its vapor to condense in a cold vessel or on a cold surface. Many circumstances affect the crystallizing power of substances. Thus, water may be cooled down below its freezing or crystallizing point (32° F.), provided it be kept perfectly still, without becoming solid; but on subsequent agitation, it instantly crystallizes. Similarly, a hot saturated solution of sulphate of soda, or glauber salt, if cooled down in a still place, does not crystallize, but immediately does so when the liquid is agitated, or a fragment of any solid substance is introduced into it. The size of the crystals obtainable from any fluid depends much on the rate of cooling, and the state of commotion of the liquid. The more slowly the solution cools down, and the more quietly the process of crystallization is allowed to proceed, the larger are the crystals obtained; whilst, when the liquid is rapidly cooled, and agitation is kept up, the crystals are comparatively small, and generally not completely formed. The reason of this will be at once apparent, for a large crystal is constructed of a multitude of smaller crystals, built up regularly so as to constitute a compound crystal of the same form as the more minute crystalline atoms; and when a liquid is cooled slowly in a state of rest, only a few minute crystals are produced at first, and these are gradually built round on all sides by successive layers, till large, well-defined crystals are the result; while, when the liquid is rapidly lowered in temperature, and especially when agitation is kept up, numerous minute crystals are formed at once, and do not adhere together. In either case, the liquid from which the crystals have separated is called the mother-liquor, and is a saturated solution of the salt. The external forms of crystals amount to several thousands, but they may all be regarded as belonging to six different systems. The regular system (otherwise called the cubic, octohedral, tesseral, tessular, spheroidal, or equi-axed system) is characterized by having three axes or straight lines passing through the same point, of equal lengths, and placed at right angles to each other. The best illustration of this system is the cube or hexahedron, which has six square faces or planes, and the three equal axes terminate in the center of each of the square faces. The planes or squares are symmetrically arranged, so that each is perpendicular to one axis, and parallel to the other two. The crystals have each six square faces, with twelve equal edges, and eight equal angles. Examples of substances which crystallize in the form of the cube or hexahedron, are-common iron pyrites, FeS2, common salt, or the chloride of sodium, NaCl, fluor spar, CaF2, galena, or the sulphuret of lead, PbS, and the metals gold, silver, platinum, and copper.. Another important crystalline form belonging to the regular system is the octohedron, where the terminations of the axes are in the angles of the crystals. It has eight faces, all of which are equilateral triangles, and twelve edges with six angles, each of which has four faces. The diamond, alum, zincblende, ZnS, sal ammonia, C,NH.Cl, magnetic iron ore, Fe,O., fluor spar, CaF,, and chrome iron ore are examples. There are various secondary forms belonging to this system, derivable from the cube and octohedron, such as the rhombic dodecahedron, which has twelve faces, and is the form in which the garnet crystallizes. The square prismatic system (known as the pyramidal, tetragonal, or quadratic system) has three axes placed at right angles to each other, of which two are of equal length, but the third may be longer or shorter. To this belong the right square prism, in which the lateral axes terminate in the center of each side face, and the perpendicular axis, is longer than the two lateral axes; and the right square-based octohedron, which resembles two pyramids placed base to base, and having eight faces, which form isosceles triangles. Examples of substances which crystallize in this system are yellow prussiate of potash, native binoxide of tin, zircon, apophylite, calomel, etc. The right prismatic system (otherwise known as the right rhomboidal, or rectangular prismatic system) is characterized by having three axes, all of unequal or different lengths, but placed at right angles to each other. The right rhombic prism and the right rhombicbased octohedron, are forms included in this class, and examples of materials which crystallize in this form are sulphur, arsenical iron pyrites, nitrate of potash, sulphate of potash, sulphate of baryta (heavy spar), topaz, arragonite, etc. The oblique prismatic system (oblique rhomboidal, or rectangular prismatic) has three axes, which may be all of unequal lengths, two of which are placed at right angles to Csoma. each other, whilst the third axis is so inclined as to be perpendicular to one of the two axes, and oblique to the other. To this belong the oblique rhombic prism and the oblique rhombic-based octohedron. Many salts crystallize in this form, such as green vitriol (sulphate of iron), borax, sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda, phosphate of soda, realgar (native bisulphuret of arsenic), etc. The doubly oblique prismatic system has three axes of unequal length, which intersect obliquely with each other. The forms are very irregular, which render them very puzzling to make out satisfactorily. Nitrate of bismuth, sulphate of copper, sulphate of manganese, quadroxalate of potash, and pyrotartaric acid, are examples. The rhombohedral, or the regular hexagonal system, is known by the presence of four axes, three of which are in the same plane, and inclined to each other at an angle of 60°, whilst the remaining fourth axis is perpendicular to the three. To this belong the regular six-sided prism and the rhombohedron. Examples of this system are calcareous spar, ice, quartz or rock crystal, nitrate of soda, beryl, arsenic, antimony, and apatite. MICROSCOPIC PICTURES, Vol. IX., p. 806, figs. 5, 6. CRYSTALLO MANCY, a mode of divination by means of transparent bodies, at one time very popular. A precious stone, crystal globe, or other transparent object, was employed, but a beryl was deemed most effective. In using it, the operator first muttered over it certain formulas of prayer, and then gave it into the hands of a youth or virgin-none others were pure enough to discern its revelations-who beheld in it the information required. Sometimes the desiderated facts were conveyed by means of written characters on the crystal; sometimes the spirits invoked appeared in the crystal to answer the questions asked. CRYSTAL PALACE, the edifice in London in which the world's fair was held in 1851, designed by sir Joseph Paxton, and built chiefly of glass and iron, with floors of wood. Its length was 1851 ft.; its area 21 acres. The visitors numbered more than 6,000,000. A permanent structure of this kind was built, 1854, at Sydenham, 8 m. from London. Its cost was £1,450,000; and in its vast collections all departments of art and science were represented. A crystal palace on a smaller scale, erected in New York, 1853, was used for exhibitions and great concerts; but was destroyed by fire in 1858. CSAB'A, a t. of Hungary, 7 m. s.s. w. of Bekes. It is well built; some of the houses are even very elegant. It has a trade in grain, wine, and cattle. The women are also noted for their skill in making sacks and mattresses. Pop. of township (1880), 32,016. CSANÁD', a co. of Hungary; 640 sq.m.; pop. '69, 95, 847. It is very level and fertile, but unhealthful. Productions, wheat, wine, tobacco, and fruit. Chief town, Mako. CSANAD', the name of two towns in Hungary, both situated on the Marös, the one with a pop. of (1869) 4,013, and the other with a pop. of (1869) 5,386, who are engaged in agricultural pursuits. CSAT, or CSATH (MEZO), a market-t. of Hungary, near the Theiss, in the district Borsod, and about 15 m. s.e. of Miskolcz. Pop. '69, 4,979. CSERVEN'KA, a t. of Hungary, in the co. of Upper Bacs, on the Franzens canal, about 130 m. s. of Pesth. Pop., which is German (1881), 7,025. CSO'KONAI, MIHALY VITEZ, 1773-1805; a Hungarian poet, educated in Debrecsin, and while very young appointed to the professorship of poetry. He was soon deprived of the place because of his immoral habits. He died after a dozen years of wretched existence. His works have been published. CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER, a Hungarian scholar and traveler, whose name in his own language is written Köröse Csoma Sandor, was b. about 1790 at Körös in Transylvania, and educated first at the college of Nagy-Enyed, and subsequently at Göttingen, where he devoted himself with great zeal to the study of the oriental tongues. The dream and inspiration of his boyhood was the hope of one day discovering the original home of his Magyar ancestors; and as he grew up, it became the single thought and passion of his life. In 1820, he set out on his visionary pilgrimage. After a year's interval, his friends got a letter from him, dated Teheran, in which he expressed his conviction that the object of his search would speedily be obtained. Leaving Teheran, he wandered n.e. through Little Bokhara, and at length reached Thibet, where he spent about four years (1827-30) in the Buddhist monastery of Kanam, studying Thibetan. He soon discovered that there was little connection between that language and his native one, but still he hoped to make use of his researches, and set out for Calcutta. Here he learned, to his dismay, that the literature of Thibet was simply a translation from the Sanscrit a language he might easily have acquired a knowledge of at home. His whole labor seemed to have been in vain. Fortunately for C. de K., the library of the Asiatic society of Bengal contained upwards of 1000 volumes in Thibetan which no one could catalogue. C. de K. undertook and successfully executed the task. By the great AngloIndian scholars, Prinsep, Wilson, and others, he was very generously treated. He next prepared, at the expense of the government, a Thibetan grammar and dictionary (Calcutta, 1834), which was the first really accurate and valuable European work on the subject. It is still a standard treatise, and has been the guide of all good scholars since. C. de K. wrote many articles on Thibetan literature in the Asiatic Researches, but still |
