of one or two species are fragrant. It is necessary frequently to take up C. roots and plant anew, on account of the manner in which the corms multiply. See CORM. See illus., BOTANY, vol. II., p. 800, fig. 12.

CROCUS OF ANTIMONY is the oxysulphide of antimony (q.v.).

CROCUS OF MARS is the finely divided red oxide of iron.

CRŒ'SUS, the last king of Lydia, succeeded his father, Alyattes, in 560 B.C. He made the Greeks of Asia Minor his tributaries, and extended his kingdom eastward to the Halys. From his conquests, his mines, and the golden sand of the Pactolus, he accumu lated so much treasure, that his wealth has become proverbial. He gave himself up to a life of pleasure and sumptuous extravagance, and is said to have deemed himself the happiest man in the world, and to have been displeased when Solon, on a visit to his court, told him that no man should be called happy till his death. He soon found how uncertain was a happiness such as his; for his beloved son Atys was killed while hunting, and there was left to him only one son, who was dumb; and having engaged in war with Cyrus, he was totally defeated, his kingdom conquered, and himself made prisoner, and condemned to be burnt (546). At the funeral pyre, his repeated exclamation of "O Solon!" drew on him the attention of the conqueror, and the reason of it being known, his life was spared, and he was treated with great kindness. Cyrus gave him for a residence the city of Barene, near Ecbatana, and is said to have consulted him in his military undertakings, a statement which, if true, indicates that C. by no means lacked native ability. Herodotus informs us that he accompanied Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, to Egypt, and while there, incurred great danger by the boldness with which he condemned, on one occasion, the cruel conduct of the Persian king. CROFFUT, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS. See page 896.

CROFT (Ang. Sax. croft), a piece of land connected with a humble kind of dwelling, whose inhabitant, the renter of the land, is called a crofter, and this method of letting small pieces of land, either for tillage or the rearing of cattle, is known as the crofting system. This kind of petty farming was formerly common in Scotland, more particu larly in the highlands. See AGRICULTURE, FARM, SPADE-HUSBANDRY.

CROFT, WILLIAM, 1677-1727; an English musical composer, organist in the chapel royal. He published Musica Sacra, or Select Anthems on score for two, three, four, five, six, seven, and eight voices; to which is added the Burial Service as it is occasionally performed in Westminster abbey.

CRO'GHAN, GEORGE, 1791-1849; b. Ky.; graduate of William and Mary college. He served on the frontier in the war of 1812, and was distinguished as an aid to gen. Harrison. He served as a col. in the war with Mexico.

CRO'IA, or CRO'JA, a t. of Upper Albania, European Turkey, 45 m. s.e. of Scutari. It is situated on a mountain spur, rising about 500 ft. above the plain, and its strong position is defended by a castle. It is the chief town of the Mirdites, a nearly independent Roman Catholic people. Pop. 6,000. The famous Scanderbeg was born here.

CROIX, STE. (or SANTA CRUZ), in English, Holy Cross or Holyrood, or, somewhat barbarously, St. Cross, an island, the most southerly and extensive of the Virgin group, is the principal Danish possession in the West Indies. With an area of about 100 sq.m., it contains about 25,000 inhabitants, being generally cultivated like a garden. -St. C. is also the name of a river, otherwise known as the Schoodie, and also as the Passamaquoddy, which falls into Passamaquoddy bay, on the w. side of the entrance of the bay of Fundy. It is the boundary between the state of Maine and the province of New Brunswick, having been so defined, from its mouth to its source, by the international treaty which recognized the independence of the United States. The St. C. is about 75 m. long, its lowest 12 m. being navigable for large vessels.

CROIZETTE, SOPHIE. See page 896.

CRO'KER, JOHN WILSON, an English politician and littérateur of considerable notoriety, was b. at Galway, in Ireland, Dec. 20, 1780. Having been educated at a school in Cork, and at Trinity college, Dublin, he entered Lincoln's inn as a law-student in 1800, and was called to the Irish bar two years afterwards. His first literary attempt was a satire on the Irish stage, which exhibited much caustic cleverness. This was in 1803, and in 1805, he published another equally clever satire on the city of Dublin, entitled An Intercepted Letter from Canton. Both productions proved a great success, running through several editions. In 1807, he issued a treatise on the State of Ireland, Past and Present, which brought him into some notice, and, in the same year, he was elected member of parliament for Downpatrick. A warm defense in parliament, in 1809, of the duke of York, charged with corrupt administration at the horse guards, helped C. in the same year to the office of secretary to the admiralty, a post which he held for 20 years. He was one of the founders of the Quarterly Review, and contributed many of the most violent party articles to its pages, as well as a large number of those bitterly personal and grossly abusive reviews which were wont to disfigure that periodical. As Rigby," allowance being made for the satire, his character is not badly hit off by Disraeli, in Coningsby. In parliament, C. steadily opposed the reform bill in all it stages, and its enactment ended his parliamentary career; but on all questions relative to the promotion of the fine arts, he was much ahead of the great majority of the com

Crome.

mons. He took an active part in the establishment of the Athenæum club, and rendered good service to literature by his annotated edition of Boswell's Johnson, and his publication of the Suffolk Papers, and lord Hervey's Memoirs of the Court of George II. His Stories from the History of England for Children, supplied Scott with the idea of Tales of a Grandfather. C. died Aug., 1857.

Of

CROKER, T. CROFTON, a popular author and collector of Irish stories and legends, was b. in Cork, Jan. 15, 1798. He early devoted himself to the collection of legends and songs of the Irish peasantry; and in 1824, he published his Researches in the South of Ireland, characterized by a happy blending of humor and sentiment, with archæological learn ing. The work was followed by the Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland (1825); Legends of the Lakes (1828); Daniel O'Rourke, a sort of Irish Münchhausen (1828); Barney Mahoney and My Village (1832); and Popular Songs of Ireland (1839). all these works, Barney Mahoney and My Village are the most original; the others partly consist of compilations; but all are marked by sound knowledge of their subjects, and a con amore style of writing. C. also edited Memoirs of Joseph Holt, General of the Irish Rebels, a very interesting work, which was published in 1838. He devoted much time, and rendered considerable service, to archæology, being member of many antiquarian socteties. Through the influence of John Wilson Croker, a friend, but no relative, he, at the age of 21, obtained a clerkship in the admiralty, where he rapidly rose until he had £800 per annum. He retired from the admiralty in 1850, with a pension of £580, and died Aug. 8, 1854.

CROLY, Rev. Dr. GEORGE, an English poet, romance-writer, and preacher, of considerable reputation, was b. at Dublin, about 1785, and educated at Trinity college there. He entered the English church, and ultimately became rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, London. His first work was a poem, entitled Paris in 1815. From this time up to within a short period of his death, which took place Nov. 24, 1860, his pen was almost incessantly at work-on satire, comedy, tragedy, romance, tales, biography, magazine articles, and the weightier matters of religion. Few subjects came amiss to him, and he exhibited considerable talent in the treatment of most that he touched upon. His best known work is the romance of Salathiel. C. was also famous for his eloquence as a pulpit orator.

CRO'MARTY, a parliamentary burgh and seaport in the united counties of Ross and Cromarty, on a low peninsula between the Moray and Cromarty firths, on the s. side of the entrance into the latter, and 18 m. n. n.e. of Inverness. It is irregularly built, and its older streets and lanes are in the homely Flemish architecture prevalent in the old towns of the n. of Scotland. The harbor admits vessels of 400 tons, and the bay has excellent anchorage for wind-bound vessels. Pop. '81, 1360. It has manufactures of ropes, sacking, sailcloth, beer. The chief industry is the herring and white fisheries. C. has declined much since the rise, on the n. side of Cromarty firth, of Invergordon, which is more contiguous to the important districts of Easter and Wester Ross. Č. unites with Kirkwall, Wick, Dingwall, Dornoch, and Tain in returning a member to parliament. In the vicinity of C. are a lighthouse and coast-guard station, and within 2 m. are some caves, and an arch, called Macfarquhar's Bed, in the old red sandstone, which rises in some parts 250 feet. Near C. are the remains of ancient chapels and camps. Hugh Miller, in whose memory a monument has been erected in the neighborhood, was a native of Cromarty.

CROMARTY FIRTH, a landlocked inlet of the North sea, on the n.e. coast of Scot. land, just n.w. of the Moray firth, and inclosed by parts of the counties of Cromarty and Ross. It forms a noble harbor 18 m. long, running s.w., 3 to 5 m. broad, and 5 to 35 fathoms deep. It receives several rivers, the Conan, entering at its upper end, being 35 m. long. The entrance to C. F. is by a strait between two high wooded cliffs or headlands, the North and South Sutors of Cromarty, only 1 m. across, with 12 to 30 fathoms of water, and with the Three Kings reef, about half a mile off land. Near the firth are the towns of Dingwall, Invergorden, and Cromarty. The largest fleet could ride safely sheltered in this fine sheet of water. In the old red sandstone, near the mouth of the firth, Hugh Miller discovered the fossil fishes pterychthys, osteolepis, etc.

CRO MARTYSHIRE, a co of the n. of Scotland, intimately connected, geographically and politically, with Ross-shire, and consisting of ten detached portions in the interior, and along the northern borders of Ross-shire. Area, 344 sq.m., or under an eighth of Ross-shire. See Ross AND CROMARTY.

CROMDALE, a village on the e. bank of the Spey, Inverness-shire, at which was fought the battle of C., May 1, 1690, between a small remnant of the adherents of the house of Stuart, who kept in arms after the death of viscount Dundee, and the forces of king William, in which the latter were victorious. This encounter has been rendered famous by a song, entitled The Haughs of Cromdale, which, however, presents a lamentable confusion of historical events.

He

CROME, JOHN, 1769-1821; an English landscape painter, son of a weaver. was apprenticed to a sign painter, and after long effort became a teacher of drawing. His works represent the familiar scenery of his native country.

Cromwell.

CRO MER, a seaport and watering-place on the n. coast of Norfolk, 21 m. n. of Nor folk. It stands on the top of one of the highest cliffs of the coast. Nearly all the old town, called Shipden, with one of the churches, was swept away by the sea about the year 1500. The sea is still gaining on the land, and some houses have been destroyed by it within present memory. In 1825, some cliffs, 200 ft. high, fell into the sea. Seamen call C. bay the Devil's Throat, from its dangers to navigation. Vessels have to load and unload on the open beach. C. has fisheries for crabs, lobsters, herrings, and mackerel. Pop. of parish '71, 1423.

CROMLECH. It has been common among British archæologists, until lately, to apply this name to a rude structure of two or more unhewn stones, placed erect in the earth, and supporting a larger stone, also unhewn. According to its etymology, however, cromlech (Celt. crom, circle, and lech, a stone) is the proper term for circles of erect stones like Stonehenge (see STANDING STONES); and the name dolmen (Celt. daul, a table; maen, a stone) is now considered more appropriate for what used to be called a cromlech. Monuments of the kind above described, whether we call them dolmens or cromlechs, are known among the common people by other names, such as "the giant's

grave,' "the giant's bed,' "the giant's quoit,' the fairies' table,' ""the devil's table,"

66

'the raised stone," "the old wives' lift,' the hag's bed," and the like.

Cromlechs are found in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, the Channel isles, France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, and some other countries of Europe; in Hindustan and elsewhere in Asia; and in America. They are generally without any inclosure; but occasionally they are fenced round with a ring of unhewn stones. In a good many instances, cromlechs have been discovered in the heart of earthen mounds or barrows. In such cases, the rude chamber or inclosure of the C. is found to contain sepulchral remains, such as skeletons or urns, together with weapons or ornaments generally of stone or bone, fragments of pottery, and bones of animals. Similar remains have been found in the chambers of cromlechs not known to have been at any time covered by barrows. These facts have led modern archeologists to believe that the C. was a sepulchral monument. The theory of the older antiquaries, that the C. was a Druidical altar, is without any foundation in what has been recorded of the Druidical worship by trustworthy writers. In a C. found under a barrow in Derbyshire, a skeleton and fragments of urns were discovered, along with Roman coins of several emperors.

Among the more remarkable cromlechs in England are Kit's Coty house in Kent, Wayland Smith's cave in Berkshire (commemorated by sir Walter Scott in Kenilworth), and Chun Quoit in Cornwall. The weight of the flat stone in this last C. is estimated at about 20 tons. In the marquis of Anglesey's park at Plas Newydd, in Wales, there are two cromlechs close beside each other: in the larger, five erect stones support a flat stone about 12 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and from 34 ft. to 4 ft. thick. Cromlechs are comparatively rare in Scotland. The best among the well-ascertained examples is perhaps that called The Auld Wives' Lift," near Craigmeddan castle, in the parish of Baldernock, in Stirlingshire: the recumbent stone, a mass of basalt, is 18 ft. long, 11 ft. wide, and 6 or 7 ft. thick, and the two stones which support it are of nearly the same size. It may be doubted if the partial elevation of the Witch's stone" at Bonnington Mains, near Ratho, in the co. of Edinburgh, has not been produced by natural causes. Among the Irish cromlechs, one of the most striking is that of Kilternan, about 6 m. from Dublin: the recumbent stone, which rests upon six blocks, is 234 ft. long, 17 ft. wide, and 6 ft. thick. A cromlech called "The Broadstone," in the co. of Antrim, is surrounded by a circle of standing stones, or erect unhewn pillars. A C. in the Phoenix park, Dublin, was discovered in 1838 in removing a large barrow: specimens of the sepulchral remains found in it are shown in the museum of the royal Irish academy. See DOLMEN.

CROMPTON, SAMUEL, whose invention of the spinning-mule entitles him to rank as one of mankind's greatest benefactors, was b. at Firwood, Bolton, Lancashire, Dec. 3, 1753. Bolton, in those days, was nearly inaccessible, and so bleak and barren that agriculture was not followed further than to supply the wants of the population. All the farmers had looms in their houses, and their families were occupied in spinning and weaving. C.'s father, who was a small farmer, lived at the Hall-in-th'-Wood, a picturesque old mansion near Bolton. He died at an early age, leaving a wife, and a son (the subject of our memoir), and two daughters. Like his father, C. was brought up to the loom and the farm. His mother, a woman of great energy, perseverance, and stern independence, struggled hard to give him and her daughters the best education the district afforded. When he was old enough, he assisted her in the farm, and wove; going to Bolton at night to complete his education in mathematics, etc. At the age of 21, he was so much annoyed at the difficulties in getting yarn to weave, that he set to work to invent a spinning-machine which should produce better yarn than Hargreaves', one of which his mother possessed. For five years he labored to realize his idea, sitting up late at night to overcome the successive difficulties, and resuming his labor for daily bread early in the morning. At length he succeeded in framing a machine which produced yarn of such astonishing fineness, that the house was beset by persons eager to know how such wonderful and desirable yarn could be made. He was rendered miserable. All kinds of devices were tried to gain admission; even ladders were placed

Cromwell.

against his windows, His machine was such that if a mechanic saw it, he could carry away the leading features of it. He could not leave the house for fear of his discovery being stolen from him. He had spent every farthing he had in the world upon its completion; he had no funds wherewith to have obtained a patent, and it is doubtful whether a patent would have altered his fate. When he was thus almost driven to desperation, one of the manufacturers went to him and persuaded him to disclose the invention to the trade, under the promise of a liberal subscription. Inexperienced in the world, he agreed to this. The machine was exhibited, but all that he got was about £60. This money was not paid to him at the time, but he had to travel for many miles round the country to collect it. Some refused to pay, though he showed them their signatures. He set manfully to work with his machine, determined to make the best he could of his ill-luck. In the course of time, he saved money enough to begin manufacturing on a small scale, but not till his rivals had nearly 20 years' start of him in the business. Then his wife died, leaving him a large family. Efforts were made to obtain for him a national reward. Five thousand pounds was all he obtained, and he returned to Bolton almost broken-hearted. Misfortune upon misfortune overtook him till he died, June 26, 1827. Some idea may be formed of the vast services he has rendered to the world, and especially to his native land, by the fact that his is by far the most used of all spinning-machines. In 1811, the number of spindles on C.'s principle was 4,600,000, while there were only 310,500 of Arkwright's, and 155,880 of Hargreaves'. At the present time, it is conjectured that there are 25,000,000 of C.'s spindles at work. Yet this great genius was never noticed by his king, and the appointments under the factory acts to which his descendants might have aspired, have been filled by the relatives or nominees of her majesty's ministers. For a complete account of this great improver of the cotton manufacture, we refer to the Life of Crompton, by Mr. G. French, 1880.

CROMWELL, HENRY, 1628-73; second son of the great protector, and, at the age of 16, a soldier in the parliamentary army. In the Barebone parliament he sat as one of the six Irish members. In 1655, he was sent to Ireland as a maj. gen., and was subsequently made lord-deputy. His latter years were passed as a farmer. His greatgrandson, the last representative of the house of Cromwell, died in 1821.

CROMWELL, OLIVER, was born at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599. His father was the younger son of sir Henry Cromwell of Hinchinbrook, and a substantial country gentleman, not likely to have been a brewer, as some of Oliver's earlier biographers assert. By his mother, genealogists trace Oliver's descent from the royal house of Stuart. Of the boy Cromwell's early life, little or nothing is actually known. What is clearly ascertained is that, after having been at school in Huntingdon, he went to Cambridge, and entered himself of Sidney-Sussex college, April 23, 1616. He had but short time for study here, his father dying in the June of the year following, when he returned home to take the management of his father's affairs. The stories of his wild life about this time appear to have no better foundation than the calumnies of royalists. In Aug., 1620, C. married the daughter of sir James Bourchier, a gentleman of landed property in Essex, who had also a residence in London. This fact is pretty conclusive as to C.'s social position being much above what his enemies have described it. C. now became intimately associated with the Puritan party, among whom he was soon distinguished alike for his earnestness and sagacity. În 1628, having been elected by the borough of Huntingdon, C. made his first appearance in parliament. He had but time to make a short blunt speech about the encouragement of the “preaching of flat popery at Paul's Cross" by the bishop of Winchester, when the infatuated king unceremoniously dispatched him and his fellow-commoners to their homes. C. returned to the fen-country, not much impressed in favor of kingcraft by his visit to London; and for the next eleven years devoted himself assiduously to the pursuit of farming by the Black Ouse river and the Cam, first at Huntingdon, then at St. Ives, and finally at Ely—making himself famous, not by political agitation, but by an effectual resistance to certain unjust schemes of the king in council for the drainage of the fens. In 1640, he was sent to parliament as member for the town of Cambridge. His appearance at this time was by no means prepossessing. Sir Philip Warwick describes him in "a plain cloth suit, which seemed to have been made by an ill country tailor; his linen was plain, and not very clean; and I remember a speck or two of blood upon his little band, which was not much larger than his collar. His hat was without a hat-band; his stature was of a good size; his sword stuck close to his side; his countenance swollen and reddish; his voice sharp and untunable; and his eloquence full of fervor;" and courtly sir Philip adds: "It lessened much my reverence unto that great council, for this gentleman was very much hearkened unto. When all hope of reconciliation between king and parliament failed, through the perfidy of the former, C. was among the first to offer of his substance to aid in defense of the state. In July, 1642, he moved in parliament for permission to raise two companies of volunteers in Cambridge, having been careful to supply the necessary arms beforehand at his own cost. In the following month, C. seized the magazine in Cambridgeshire, and prevented the royalists from carrying off the plate (valued at £20,000) in the university there. As captain of a troop of horse, C. exhibited astonishing military genius; and against the men trained by himself- Cromwell's

Ironsides"-the battle-shock of the fiery Rupert, which at the beginning of the 'parliamentary struggle none else could withstand, spent itself in vain. Soon promoted to the rank of col., and then to that of lieut. gen., C., in the fight of Winceby, on the bloody field of Marston (July 2, 1644), and in the second battle of Newbury (Oct. 27, 1644), bore himself with distinguished bravery; but, owing to the backwardness of his superiors, the results of these victories to the parliamentary cause were not so great as they might reasonably have been. C. thus complained in parliament of the backward. ness of his superiors, Essex and Manchester: "I do conceive if the army be not put into another method, and the war more vigorously prosecuted, the people can bear the war no longer, and will enforce you to a dishonorable peace." Hereupon, the "selfdenying ordinance"-an act excluding members of the houses of parliament from holding command in the army-was passed; but C.'s services were considered of such importance to the common weal, that they were exceptionally retained. Of the new model army, Fairfax was appointed gen., C. serving under him as lieut.gen. of the horse, and in this capacity he commanded the right wing of the parliamentary army at Naseby, June, 1645, and acquitted himself so well there, that the king's forces were utterly ruined. The royalists in the west were now speedily reduced. Bristel was stormed; everywhere the royal cause was failing, and Charles himself, reduced to the last extremity, in May, 1646, escaped from Oxford in disguise, and threw himself into the arms of the Scotch army at Newark (May 5, 1646), by whom he was shortly given up to the parliamentary commissioners. The source of the strife now fairly within their grasp, the parliament and the army, in the former of which the Presbyterian, and in the latter the Independent, element predominated, became jealous of each other's power. With his usual sagacity, C. perceived that the advantage would lie with that party who held possession of the king's person, and with ready decision he had him removed from the hands of the commissioners into those of the army, June, 1647. Some of the leading Presbyterians were now turned out of parliament by the army, and Independency, with C. at its head, was gradually obtaining the ascendency. The king still remained with the army, and with his usual duplicity, negotiated with both parties, not without hope that out of their mutual dissensions might arise advantage to himself. On the 11th Nov., 1647, the king made his escape from Hampton court. Two days after, he was in custody of col. Hammond in the isle of Wight. At this time the country was in a critical condition. The Welsh had risen in insurrection, a Scotch army was bearing down from the n. with hostile intent, and Rupert, to whom seventeen English ships had deserted, was threatening a descent from Holland, not to speak of the rampant royalism of Ireland. Prompt measures alone could prevent anarchy and inextricable confusion, and C. was not afraid to employ them. Pembroke had to surrender, and at Preston Moor the Scotch were utterly defeated. On the return of the army to London, the Presbyterians, who were still blindly temporizing with the king, to the number of more than 100, were driven out (Dec., 1648), by the process known in history as Pride's purge." Then that which C. thought could alone end the strife, happened In Jan., 1649, the king was tried, condemned, and executed. The abolition of the house of lords followed speedily, and C. became a prominent member of the new council of state; and in the army, though still only lieut. gen., he had really much more influence than the commander-in-chief. The roy alists being still strong and rebellious in Ireland, C. went thither in Aug., with the title of lord-lieutenant, and commander-in-chief of the army there; and ere nine months had passed, he had subdued the country so far, that it might be safely left to the keeping of his son-in-law, Ireton. C.'s measures for crushing the Irish rebels were indeed severe, and even sanguinary, but, nevertheless, peace and prosperity followed in a degree unknown before in the history of that unhappy country. Affairs in Scotland now claimed C.'s attention. Scotch commissioners had been negotiating with Charles II. at Breda, had urged him to come among them and take the covenant, and they would crown him king over them at least, and do what force of arms could do to make him king of England also. Charles arrived in the n. of Scotland on the 23d June, 1650; three days thereafter, Cromwell-Presbyterian Fairfax having refused to fight against the Presbyterian Scotch-was appointed commander-in-chief of all the parliament forces. On the 15th of July, Charles Stuart had signed the covenant, and was fully accepted ed as king. On the 3d Sept. following, C. routed the Scotch army at Dunbar. Charles, with what force remained, and other accessions, afterwards marched southward, and had penetrated to Worcester, when C. came up with him, and utterly overthrew the royalists on the anniversary of the battle of Dunbar. This battle placed C. avowedly at the head of public affairs in England, and to write his biography from this time until his death, would be to write the history of the commonwealth. The Long parliament had now degenerated into the Rump-had become, in truth, an oligarchy, given to long and useless discussions about mere technicalities-intolerable to the country alike for the extraordinary power it possessed, and for the weak, pusillanimous way in which it exercised it. C., therefore, dissolved the Rump, 20th April, 1653, and henceforth he alone was ruler in England. He immediately summoned a parliament of 140 persons, 138 of whom assembled on the 4th July, but he found it necessary to dissolve it on the 12th Dec.; its one great work having been the legal investiture of C. with the supreme power and the title of lord protector, a position upon which the principal foreign powers