Gotton.

66

now proportionately high, and therefore they could manufacture at a profit. In June, 1863, a public works act" was passed, to enable the government to advance £1,200,000 for public works in the cotton districts-partly to make good drainage, roads, watersupply, etc., and partly to yield £600,000 or £700,000 as wages to the unemployed cottonhands in doing so much of the work as they could manage. The money (to be repaid by parish rates at subsequent dates) was to be advanced by the exchequer loan commissioners on the recommendation of the poor-law board, and a government engineer was to examine and sanction the several works to be executed. All these operations were to be confined strictly to the cotton districts, where the distress existed. Mr. R. A. Arnold, the resident government inspector of these public works, states in his History of the Cotton Famine, that by the month of June, 1865, there had been works planned, and in great part executed, under the clauses of this and a supplementary bill, to the amount of £1,846,000. They compromised the making or improving of 276 m. of street and highway, 304 m. of main sewer, reservoirs for 1500 million gallons of water, several parks and cemeteries, and a large area of land-drainage. Nearly 30,000 persons had been fed by the wages of the cotton operatives on these works. The subscriptions to meet the distress reached the vast sum of £2,000,000; while the out-door poor relief was about £1,000,000 more than in an equal period of average times.

The fluctuations in the value and quantity of cotton available during this extraordi nary period are strikingly shown in the following parallel columns, relating to the raw cotton imported, and the money paid for it:

Remark here the sudden and tremendous increase in the amount paid for cotton in the latter half of the period; the payment, indeed, of forty millions sterling more in 1866 than in 1860, for about the same quantity. To show how India and Egypt benefited by this unprecedented state of affairs, we give (in pounds,* not cwts.) the quantities imported from those countries as compared with the imports from the United States:

The export of British Indian cotton is 1860 brought only £2,500,000; in 1864, it fetched £34,000,000. The largest quantity imported was in 1866. In 1876, the total value of Indian cotton was £5,874,704.

COTTON GRASS, Eriophorum, a genus of plants of the natural order cyperaceae, having the fruit accompanied with long silky hairs which spring from the base of the ovary. The species are not very numerous; they are natives of the colder regions of the northern hemisphere. Several are found in Britain, and their white cottony fruit-bearing spikes are well known in our moors and bogs. The cottony substance has been used for stuffing pillows, making candle-wicks, etc. Mr. Helliwell has shown that a firm and beautiful cloth can be made of it; and, according to him, it might be gathered in some places, without cultivation, at a cost of twopence or threepence per pound. The stems of a Himalayan species, E. cannabinum, called bhabhur, yield a very strong fiber, and are much employed for making cordage, being simply twisted into cables, of which rope-bridges are usually made; but they are not durable, and require much repairing every year.-C. G. is said to be valuable for sheep-pasture. Its leaves were

The board of trade tables, from which these figures are taken, are often difficult to consult, on account of the quantities of cotton being stated sometimes in bales, sometimes in cwts., and sometimes in pounds.

formerly employed as a remedy for diarrhoea, and the spongy pith of the stem to expel tape-worms. See illus., GRAIN, ETC., vol. VI., p. 874, fig. 11.

COTTONWOOD. See POPLAR.

COTTONWOOD, a co. in s.e. Minnesota on the Des Moines river, and the tributaries of the Big Cottonwood, intersected by the St. Paul and Sioux City, and the Winona and St. Peter's railroads; 725 sq.m.; pop. '80, 5,533. Surface undulating, and soil fertile.

COTTON WORM, the caterpillar of a moth of the tribe noctua. The insect is of triangular shape, about an inch long, the upper wings reddish gray, and the under wings darker. The caterpillars have 16 feet, and in creeping they raise the back like the inchworm, or span-worm. They are green, with light yellow stripes, and black dots along the back. These worms are sometimes terribly destructive to young cotton plants.

COT TUS, a genus of acanthopterygious fishes, of the mailed cheek family or sclerogenida, having a large depressed head, more or less armed with spines or tubercles, a tapering body destitute of scales, and two dorsal fins. Some of the species are marine, others inhabit fresh water. Of the latter, the bull-head (q. v.) is an example. The marine species are mostly found in northern seas. A few occur on the shores of Britain, of which the most common are the sea scorpion (C. scorpius) and the father lasher (C. bubalis), both of which are very often left by the receding tide in rock-pools, and amongst seaweeds. The greatest size to which they attain on the British coasts is only about 10 in., but in more northerly seas, they become much larger. They form a principal part of the food of the Greenlanders. Notwithstanding their large gill-openings, they live long out of water.

COTUR NIX. See QUAIL.

COTYLE DON (Gr. a cup or cup-shaped hollow), or SEED-LOBE, in botany, a principal part of the embryo in phanerogamous or flowering-plants. Cryptogamous plants are acotyledonous (q.v.); their seeds or spores have no cotyledons. Phanerogamous plants are divided according to their seeds into monocotyledonous (q.v.), having only one C., and dicotyledonous (q.v.), having two cotyledons. With the latter are ranked some conifera remarkable for having more than two cotyledons, which form a sort of whorl. The coty ledons inclose the plumule or gemmule; and in germination they usually come above. ground as the first leaves (seed-leaves) of the young plant-the plumule in dicotyledonous plants, appearing between them-and they become at the same time more leaf-like; but in some plants, which have thick fleshy cotyledons, they remain under-ground. In either case, they contain a store of nourishment, by which the young plant is sustained on its first germination. Instances of cotyledons remaining under-ground, may be seen in the common pea and bean; and instances of cotyledons coming above-ground, in the kidney-bean and scarlet-runner, plants of the same natural order. Cotyledons are sometimes very thick, sometimes very thin and delicate; those of the same seed are generally equal, but not always so; they are frequently undivided, but sometimes cut and lobed. The cotyledons of dicotyledonous plants are often simply applied face to face; when if the radicle is folded along their edges, they are said to be accumbent; if it is folded on their back, they are incumbent. Sometimes the two cotyledons of a seed are conduplicate, or laterally folded; sometimes they are reclinate, or folded from apex to base; sometimes convolute, or laterally rolled up; sometimes circinate, or spiraily rolled up with the apex innermost. These terms are of importance in descriptive botany, as characters of high value are often furnished by the seed.

COUCH, DARIUS NASH, b. N. Y., 1802; graduate of West Point. He served regularly in the army from 1846 to the close of the war of the rebellion, becoming maj. gen. of volunteers. In 1865, he resigned, and was in that year the democratic candidate for governor of Massachusetts, but failed of election.

COU CHANT. In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head up, is couchant. If the head is down, he is DORMANT.

COUCH GRASS, Triticum repens, also called wheat grass, dog grass, quickens, and squitch or quitch, a grass which, although of the same genus with wheat, is chiefly known to British farmers as a troublesome weed. It is common in most parts of Europe and North America. It grows to a height of 1 to 3 ft., and has two-rowed spikes and flat spikelets, the side of which is applied to the rachis. It is perennial, and its creeping roots render it extremely difficult of extirpation; they are carefully gathered out of land under cultivation, but they make the plant very useful in fixing loose sandy soils, so as to form pasture. It is not, however, esteemed a very nutritious grass. The roots are sweet and mucilaginous, and are collected at Naples for feeding horses; they have also been dried and ground into meal, to make bread in times of scarcity. A kind of beer is made from them, and in some countries they are much used in domestic medicine. They are diaphoretic and aperient.-The popular name squatch, or quatch, is also given to some other perennial grasses.

COUCHING. See CATARACT,

COUCY, RENAUD CASTELLAN OF, a court-poet belonging to the n. of France, who flourished probably in the latter part of the 12th century. The love-songs ascribed to

him are distinguished above all similar productions of the same epoch by the great warmth of passion displayed. They are addressed, of course, to a mistress, whose name, in accordance with the fashion of the time, is not mentioned. From their contents, we can gather little or nothing of the circumstances of C.'s life, except that he had. become a crusader, and had separated himself very reluctantly from the object of his adoration. It is supposed that he accompanied Philippe Auguste and Richard Cœur de Lion to the Holy Land, probably in the service of Raoul Sieur de Coucy, with whom, indeed, he is often confounded. Like Tristan and Isolde, C. and his mistress soon became patterns of true but unfortunate lovers. As early as the first half of the 13th c., the Roman d'Aventure gives a very prolix and incredible account of both. The best edition of the Chansons du Châtelain de C. was edited by Franç. Michel (Paris, 1830). COUES, ELLIOTT, M.D. See page 894.

COU ́GAR. See PUMA.

COUGHING, considered physiologically, consists, 1st, in a long inspiration which fills the lungs to a greater extent than usual; 2d, in the closure of the glottis, or narrow opening in the organ of voice (see LARYNX), at the commencement of the act of expiration; and 3d, in the sudden forcing open of the glottis by the violence of the expiratory movement. In this way, a blast of air is driven upwards from the lungs through the mouth, which carries with it any sources of irritation that may have been present in the air-passages. C. may occur from irritation in the back of the throat, in the larynx, trachea, or bronchial tubes, and may be excited by acrid vapors, by irritant gases, or by articles of food or drink-such as even a drop of water or a crumb of bread-making their way into the air-passages instead of into the pharynx, or by excessive or morbid secretion from the walls of the air-tubes, or even by the entrance of cold air, when the lining membrane of the air-passages is abnormally irritable.

It is not very easy to explain to the non-professional reader how cough is produced. From the medulla oblongata, or uppermost part of the spinal cord (lying within the cavity of the cranium), there is given off a very important nerve, called, from its distribution to the lungs and stomach, the pneumogastric nerve (q.v.), which contains both sensory and motor filaments. The sensory filaments are distributed to the mucous lining of the larynx, trachea, etc. Any of the irritating substances already mentioned may produce an impression upon these sensory filaments which, being conveyed to the medulla oblongata, gives rise, through the motor filaments, to the transmission of motor impulses to the various muscles which are concerned in the act of coughing. Other motor nerves, especially those supplying the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, co-operate powerfully with the motor filaments of the pneumogastric.

The object of C. in the animal economy is unquestionably to guard against the danger of the entrance of mechanical and chemical irritants into the air-passages; and accordingly the mucous membrane, especially of their upper part, is endowed with a most exquisite sensibility, which, when aroused by irritation or by a state of disease, provokes incessant coughing until the irritation be allayed or removed. Cough is an exceedingly common symptom of all diseases of the respiration. See PNEUMONIA, CONSUMPTION, BRONCHITIS, CATARRH, etc.

Cough occurs amongst the lower animals under similar conditions. From continued breathing of a close foul atmosphere, the bronchial mucous membrane becomes unduly irritable, hence the prevalence of chronic cough amongst the cows in our overcrowded town-dairies. Chronic cough also occurs in horses, usually as a sequel to repeated attacks of bronchitis, and constitutes unsoundness.

COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE, known by his experiments on friction, and his invention of an instrument-the torsion balance (q.v.)-to measure the force of magnetic and electrical attraction, was b. at Angoulême in 1736, and in early life entered the engineers. In 1777, he gained a prize by an essay on the construction of magnetic needles (Sur les Aiguilles Aimantées). In 1779, his Théorie des Machines simples gained the prize offered by the academy; and in 1781, he was a third time successful in an essay on the friction and resistance of cordage, etc., used in machines. In the same year he was elected as member of the academy, and his services were employed on all the most difficult problems in mechanics. Having offended certain influential persons by reporting unfavorably on their project of a navigable canal in Bretagne, C. was for some time imprisoned, but received from the states of Bretagne a present of a seconds' watch, as a reward of his firm opposition to an expensive and unprofitable scheme. C. lived in retirement during the revolution; became a member of the institute, 1804; and d. Aug. 23, 1806.

COULOMB, unit of quantity. See ELECTRICITY.
COULTER. See PLOW.

COU MARIN, or TON'KA STEAROP'TEN (see STEAROPTEN), is a camphor-like substance of a very agreeable smell, which gives their fragrance to the well-known tonka bean (q.v.), (dipterix odorata), so much used for flavoring snuff; the woodruff (asperula odorata); the melilot (melilotus officinalis); a number of grasses, as the sweet-scented vernal grass (anthoxanthum odoratum); and the faam or faham leaves (angræcum fragrans), much prized among the Asiatics for their vanilla-like scent; and is probably the cause of similar fragrance in many other plants. C. may be procured from tonka beans

Count.

by digestion in ether. It crystallizes in small prisms, is colorless, has the smell of the bean, and is scarcely soluble in cold water, but dissolves pretty easily in boiling water. A beverage well known in Germany as May drink, and made of wine and woodruff, derives its flavor from coumarine.

COUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDER. See page 894.

COUNCIL. Among Congregationalists and Baptists is an assembly of ministers and delegates from neighboring churches, called by a local church, as occasion arises, to act or assist in ordaining a minister, or give advice on matters referred to it. Its power is only advisory. They have also a national C., whose name has been criticised as not accurately indicating its character, composed of delegates from all parts of the denomination, and meeting for conference concerning its work and welfare. The Pan-Presbyterian C. is composed of delegates from Presbyterian bodies throughout the world, and meets for conference on matters of general interest to the denomination. In the Reformed Episcopal church, each parish, in addition to the vestry which has direction of its temporal affairs, has a C., chosen by communicants, that holds an advisory relation to the pastor, and is associated with him in the reception, discipline, and dismission of members. The synodical C. is composed of delegates from a certain number of parishes; and the general C., representing the whole denomination, is clothed with supreme legislative authority. See LETTER MISSIVE.

COUNCIL, PRIVY. See PRIVY COUNCIL.

COUNCIL, or SYN'OD, is an assembly of ecclesiastical dignitaries held for the purpose of regulating the doctrine or discipline of the church. As early as the 2d c., church councils were convened in which only one or two provinces took part, the bishops and presbyters binding themselves to carry out the decisions arrived at in their own communities. These assemblies were commonly held in the chief town or metropolis of the province, and the bishops of such capitals-who, after the 3d c., bore the title of metropolitan-were wont to preside over the meetings, and to consider questions of doctrine and discipline which had arisen within the territory. Over these metropolitan councils were established, at a later period, the provincial synods, exercising authority over several united provinces, and finally, the national councils. After the 4th c., when the Christian religion was established in the Roman empire, we read of œcumenical, i.e., universal councils, so called because all the bishops of Christendom were invited or summoned by the emperor. In some early synods, we find bishops, presbyters, and others, taking part in the deliberations; but after the opening of the 4th c., only the bishops were convened. According to the doctrine of the Roman Catholic church, the pope alone, or, by way of exception, in some cases the college of cardinals had the power of convening œcumenical councils, which, in the Catholic view, represent the universal church under the guidance of the Holy Ghost. Questions were determined by the majority of votes, and the pope or his proxy presided and confirmed the resolutions carried in the synod. In matters of faith, the Holy Scriptures and the traditions of the church are the guide; while in lighter matters, human reason and expediency were consulted. In the former, œcumenical councils are held to be infallible, but in other matters of discipline, etc., the latest synod decides questions. The question of the pope's subordination to the decrees of the ecumenical councils was long and warmly debated, but the recent Vatican council may be said to have set the question at rest. Twenty œcumenical councils are recognized in the Roman Catholic church—9 eastern and 11 western.

1. The synod of apostles in Jerusalem, wherein the relation of the Christian doctrine to the Mosaic law was determined. (See Acts, c. xv.) 2. The first C. of Nice, held 325 A.D., to assert the Catholic doctrine respecting the Son of God, in opposition to the opinions of Arius. 3. The first C. of Constantinople, convoked under the emperor Theodosius the great (381 A.D.), to determine the Catholic doctrine regarding the Holy Ghost. 4. The first C. of Ephesus, convened under Theodosius the younger (431 A.D.), to condemn the Nestorian heresy. 5. The C. of Chalcedon, under the emperor Marcian (451 A.D.), which asserted the doctrine of the union of the divine with the human nature in Christ, and condemned the heresies of Eutyches and the Monophysites. 6. The second C. of Constantinople, under Justinian (553 A.D.), which condemned the doctrines of Origen, Arius, Macedonius, and others. 7. The third C. of Constantinople, convoked under the emperor Constantine V., Pogonatus (681 A.D.), for the condemnation of the Monothelite heresy. 8. The second C. of Nice, held in the reign of the empress Irene and her son Constantine (787 A.D.), to establish the worship of images. 9. The fourth C. of Constantinople, under Basilius and Adrian (869 A.D.), the principal business of which was the peace of the eastern and western churches, and the deposition of Photius, who had intruded himself into the see of Constantinople, and the restoration of Ignatius, who had been unjustly expelled. 10. The first Lateran C., held in Rome under the emperor Henry V., and convoked by the pope, Calixtus II. (1123 A.D.), to settle the dispute on investiture (q. v.). 11. The second Lateran C., under the emperor Conrad III. and pope Innocent II. (1139 A.D.), condemned the errors of Arnold of Brescia and others. 12. The third Lateran C., convened by pope Alexander III. (1179 A. D.), in the reign of Frederick I. of Germany, condemned the errors and impieties of the Waldenses and Albigenses. 13. The fourth Lateran C., held under Innocent III. (1215 A.D.), among other matters, asserted and confirmed the dogma of transubstantia

tion and necessity for the reformation of abuses and the extirpation of heresy. 14. The first ecumenical synod of Lyon, held during the pontificate of Innocent IV. (1245 A.D.), had for its object the promotion of the crusades, the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline, etc. 15. The second œcumenical synod of Lyon was held during the pontificate of Gregory X. (1274 A.D.). Its principal object was the reunion of the Greek and Latin churches. 16. The synod of Vienne in Gaul, under Clemens V. (1311 A.D.), was convoked to suppress the Knights Templars, etc. 17. The C. of Constance was convoked at the request of the emperor Sigismund, 1414 A.D., and sat for four years. It asserted the authority of an ecumenical C. over the pope, and condemned the doctrines of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. 18. The C. of Basel was convoked by pope Martin V., 1430 A.D. It sat for nearly ten years, and purposed to introduce a reformation in the discipline, and even in the constitution, of the Roman Catholic church. All acts passed in this C., after it had been formally dissolved by the pope, are regarded by the Roman Catholic church as null and void. 19. The celebrated C. of Trent, held 15451563 A.D. It was opened by Paul III., and brought to a close under the pontificate of Paul IV. The Vatican C., above mentioned, held in 1870, decreed the infallibility of the pope. For details of the more important councils, see NICE, BASEL, CONSTANCE,

TRENT, etc.

Among the provincial or local synods convened after the division of the church into east and west, we may mention that of Clermont (1096 A.D.), when the first crusade was proposed, and that of Pisa (1409 A.D.), when three popes were contending for the see of Rome. Among Protestants, no general C. has ever been convened; but several particular synods have decided various questions. Of these synods, one of the more remarkable was that of Dort, in 1618, when Calvin's creed was asserted against the Armin

ians.

The decrees of the Roman Catholic councils were edited by Mansi (31 vols., 17591798). See Hefele's Conciliengeschichte (7 vols., 1855-1874).

COUNCIL, TOWN. See TOWN COUNCIL.

COUNCIL BLUFFS, a city in Pottawottamie co., Iowa, on the Missouri river, 120 m. above Des Moines, and 1000 m. above St. Louis, on the Union Pacific and five other railroads; and connected by ferry and bridges with Omaha, Neb.; pop. '80, 18.059. The new bridge over the Missouri is over half a mile long and 50 ft. above high water, and is intended for railroad trains as well as ordinary travel. The city is nearly three m. from the river at the foot of the bluffs, a high and precipitous ridge. It is on a square, 6 by 4 m., making 24 sq. miles. It is well laid out in rectangular blocks, and finely built, chiefly of brick. The noteworthy buildings are the county court house, the city hall, high-school, and two public halls. There are many important manufactories, churches, and schools, and near by is the state deaf and dumb institution. It was a Mormon settlement in 1846, and was chartered as a city in 1853. The name is in memory of a council held with the Indians by the explorers, Lewis and Clarke, in the early part of the century.

COUNCIL OF WAR is a conference of officers, in military or naval warfare, on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others. The French make a special provision for a council of defense in a garrison. The governor or commandant may summon the heads of departments to meet him in consultation whenever he may think such a step desirable; and the opinions expressed at such meetings are placed upon record. The commandant of a garrison generally solicits the opinion of a C. of W. before surrendering to besiegers. The English military code leaves these matters to the discretion of the commander. In the navy, a C. of W. consists usually of flag-officers only; but officers of lower rank occasionally assist. COUNSEL. See ADVOCATE and BARRISTER.

COUNT (Fr. comte; Lat. comes). In classical writers, down to the end of the 4th c., the meanings attached to the word comes were comparatively few and simple. At first it signified merely an attendant, and differed from socius chiefly in expressing a less intimate and equal relation to the person accompanied. Suetonius uses it for an attendant on a magistrate. A little later, in Horace's time, it was applied to those young men of family whom it had become customary to send out as pupils under the eye of a govOr of a province, or the commander of an army. Very soon the fashion of having ilar attendants at home was introduced, and Horace speaks of this necessity as one the miseries of a high position. The emperor, of course, had many comites in this ense; and to these, as he gradually became the center of power, he transferred the arious offices of his household, and even of the state. Around his person these comites formed a sort of council of state, very much resembling that instituted by the first Napoleon. The example of the emperors of the west was followed by the emperors of the east, though at Byzantium the title attached less to the office than to the individual. Most of the titles of our own court officials are translations of those belonging to similar officers in the lower empire. The comes sacrarum largitionum was the grand almoner; the comes curia, the grand-master of ceremonies; the comes vestiarius, the grand master of the wardrobe; comes equorum regiorum, the grand equerry, etc. The comes marcarum, or count of the marches, there can be little doubt, was the original of IV.-13a.