rights of the burghers were less extensive than in Aragon, but in both states the king was dependent on the Cortes. After the union of Castile and Aragon under Ferdinand and Isabella, the crown succeeded in making itself less dependent on the C., whose power and privileges were gradually encroached upon, until at last they were seldom assembled except to do homage or to sanction an arrangement as to the succession to the throne. After 1713, they did not meet till 1789, on the accession of Charles IV. In 1809, the C., as composed in 1789, was assembled by the Junta, and framed a new constitution, called the constitution of 1812, which, however, was set aside at the restoration. Endless attempts at restoration and modification of the Spanish C. have since been made, without any happy result. See SPAIN.

The history of the Portuguese C. is very similar to that of the Spanish. In 1826, Dom Pedro promulgated a new constitution after the model of the French, calling the C. again into life, and abdicating at the same time in favor of his daughter, Maria da Gloria. This constitution was set aside during the usurpation of Dom Miguel, but was finally restored in 1842.

CORTÉS, HERNAN, the daring conqueror of Mexico, was b. in 1485, at Medellin, a village of Estremadura, Spain. He was educated for the law, but afterwards adopted the profession of arms; and in 1511, distinguished himself under Diego-Velasquez in the expedition against Cuba. In 1518, the conquest of Mexico was intrusted to him by Velasquez, who was then governor of Cuba; but the latter had no sooner granted him the commission than he wished to revoke it, fearful that his dashing and sagacious lieut. would deprive him of all the glory of the enterprise. C., however, maintained his command in defiance of the governor. Never, perhaps, was an enterprise so great undertaken with so little regard for its difficulties and dangers. A force of between 600 and 700 men, only 13 of whom were musketeers, with only 10 field-pieces and two or three smaller pieces of cannon, were all the means at C.'s disposal to effect the conquest of the then extensive empire of Mexico, when, early in 1519, he landed on its shores. Sailing up the river Tabasco, C. captured the town of that name, the prowess of the Spaniards occasioning great terror to the Tabascans, who made liberal presents to the white men, and volunteered all the information about Mexico in their power. Arriving off the coast of San Juan de Ulloa, C. was here visited by some Mexican chiefs, with whom he entered into negotiation regarding a visit to Montezuma, who then ruled with nearly absolute sway over Mexico. Montezuma sent C. rich presents, but objected to his visiting the capital. But C. had resolved upon seeing the emperor in his palace, and was not to be daunted by opposition. Having founded the town of Vera Cruz, and burnt his ships, so that his troops could not return, and must, therefore, conquer or perish, C., with a force reduced to 400 Spaniards on foot and 15 horse, but with a con siderable number of Indian followers, lent him by dissatisfied chiefs dependent on Montezuma, marched upon the capital. Overcoming the Tlascalans, a brave people, on the way, who after became his firm allies, and taking fearful vengeance on the city of Cholula, where, by Montezuma's orders, a treacherous attempt was made to massacre his troops, C. on the 8th Nov., 1519, reached the city of Mexico with his little band, and was received with great pomp by the emperor in person. The Spaniards were regarded as those descendants of the sun who, according to a current prophecy, were to come from the east and subvert the Aztec empire-a tradition that was worth a good many soldiers to Cortes. An attack on C.'s colony at Vera Cruz by one of Montezuma's generals, however, proved the mortality of the Spaniards, and would have been the ruin of them but for the decisiveness of C., who immediately seized the emperor, and carrying him to the Spanish quarter, forced him to surrender the offending general and three other chiefs, whom he caused to be burnt in front of the palace, and ere long compelled him formally to cede his empire to Spain. One has nothing but astonishment for this man, whose daring acts in the capital city of the empire, containing, it is calculated, 300,000 inhabitants, had nothing but 400 Spaniards, and a few thousand Indians, whom he had recently conquered, to support them. Mean while Velasquez, enraged at C.'s success, sent an army of about 1000 men, well provided with artillery, to compel his surrender. C. unexpectedly met and overpowered this force, and secured its allegiance. But in his absence the Mexicans had risen in the capital, and C. was finally driven out with much loss. During the disturbance, Montezuma, who was still kept a prisoner, appeared on a terrace with the view of pacifying his people; but he was wounded by a stone, an indignity against his kingly person which he took so much to heart that he died in a few days. C. now retired to Tlascala, to recruit his fatigued and wounded men; and receiving reinforcements, he speedily subjugated all Anahuac to the e. of the Mexican valley, and soon marched again on the city of Mexico, which he succeeded in capturing (Aug. 16, 1521) after a siege of four months, ended by a murderous assault of two days. Famine had assisted the Spanish arms, so that of the vast population only about 40,000 remained when the Spaniards entered the city, which lay in ruins, "like some huge churchyard with the corpses disinterred and the tombstones scattered about." Mexico was now completely subjugated, for though some attempts at revolt were afterwards made, they were soon crushed by C., who had been nominated governor and capt. gen. of the country by Charles V. In 1528, C. returned to Spain, to meet some calumnies against him, and was received with great distinction. On his return to Mexico in

Corygaum.

1530, however, he was divested of his civil rank. At his own expense he fitted out several expeditions, one of which discovered California. In 1540, he came again to Spain, but was coldly received at court, from which he soon retired, and died at Seville, Dec., 1547.

CORTLAND, a co. in central New York, intersected by the Syracuse and Binghamton and the Southern Central railroad; 480 sq.m.; pop. '80, 25,825. There is iron ore in some places, but agriculture is the chief business, the production of cheese, butter, and maple sugar being prominent. Co. seat, Cortland.

CORTLAND, a village and seat of justice of Cortland co., N. Y., on the Syracuse and Binghamton railroad, 36 m. s. of Syracuse; pop. of township, '80, 7,114.

CORTO NA, a t. of central Italy, about 50 m. s.e. of Florence. It is beautifully situated amid vineyards on a hill rising from the fertile valley of the Chiana, and commanding a view of the lake of Perugia (anc. lacus Trasimenus). The city is of fabulous antiquity, older, it is said, than Troy; and the Cyclopean walls, erected by the Pelasgianswhich in many parts remain unchanged-prove, if not a history quite as old as tradition affirms, at all events one second in remoteness to few places in Italy. It was one of the most powerful of the twelve cities forming the Etruscan league. By the Romans, who settled a colony here about the time of Sulla, it was called Corythus. After many vicissitudes during the middle ages, the town became subject to Florence in the 15th century. Besides the walls, there are several objects of Etruscan antiquity at Cortona. The modern town contains above 3,900 inhabitants. Among the principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 10th or 11th c., with some fine paintings and monuments, the churches of Jesus, St. Francesco, and others. The Etruscan academy has its seat here, the museum connected with which contains a multitude of Etruscan sarcophagi, vases, etc. C. has a trade in wine and olives, and fine marble is found in the vicinity. CORTONA, Pietro BerrettTINI DA, 1596–1669; an Italian architect and painter employed by Urban VIII. to decorate a chapel and to execute the frescoes on the ceiling of the grand salon of the Barberini palace, which, with others from his hand, are among the most remarkable specimens of decorative art of the period. The church of Santa Maria del Pace in Rome was his best architectural work.

CORU'NA (English, Corunna), a fortified seaport of Spain, situated on a small headland in the Atlantic, formed by the three bays of Betanzos, Coruña, and El Ferrol, about midway between capes Finisterre and Ortegal, in lat. 43° 22' n., long. 8° 22' west. C., which is a thriving place, is built partly on the slope and partly at the foot of a hill, and is divided into the upper and lower towns, the former being the most ancient. The lower town, which was formerly inhabited chiefly by fishermen, is now more important than the upper. It is well built, chiefly of granite, and some of its streets are broad and well paved. There are few public buildings of any note in Coruña. A citadel defends the town, and the harbor, protected by forts, is safe and commodious. In 1871, 356 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 34,927 tons, entered, and the same number and tonnage cleared the port. During the same year, the value of cargoes amounted to £119,260. Pop. 34,000. C. dates its origin from the Phoenicians, from whom it was taken by the Romans in the 1st c. B. C. For Englishmen, great historical interest attaches to Coruña. Here, in 1386, John of Gaunt landed to claim the crown of Castile in right of his wife, daughter of Pedro the cruel; in 1554, Philip II. embarked here for England to marry queen Mary; and in 1588, the great Spanish armada, which had been refitted at this port, set sail for the conquest of England. But C. is best known in connection with the death of sir John Moore, who, as a fitting conclusion to his memorable retreat, with about 14,000 men defeated (Jan. 16, 1809) on the heights of Elvina, behind C., 20,000 French under Soult. Moore, who was mortally wounded in the action, was buried on the ramparts in his military cloak. A monument, erected by the British government, marks the place of his burial.

CORUN DUM, a mineral consisting essentially of mere alumina, yet of great specific gravity-about four times that of water-and of remarkable hardness, being inferior in this respect only to the diamond. Mineralogists regard the sapphire as a variety of C., and along with it the gems popularly known as oriental ruby, oriental topaz, oriental emerald, and oriental amethyst; but the name C. is more usually limited to the coarser varieties, to which it is applied by the natives of India. These, instead of exhibiting the brilliancy of gems, are in general of a dull and muddy appearance, and the crystals -which are usually six-sided prisms, and six-sided pyramids-are externally dull and rough. The color is various, often green, blue, or red, inclining to gray. The variety called adamantine spar is of a hair-brown color and adamantine luster. Some corun. dums-known as asteria sapphires or star sapphires-when cut in a particular manner, exhibit an opalescent star of six rays. C. is found in many parts of the world, and has long been used in India for polishing all gems except the diamond, which is too hard for it, and also for polishing the stones used in temples and other buildings. Emery (q. v.), so well known as a polishing substance, is a variety of corundum.

CORUNNA, a province of Spain, in Galicia, forming the extreme n. w. corner of the kingdom, bordering on the bay of Biscay and the Atlantic ocean; about 3,000 sq.m.; pop. '70, 630,504. It has a sinuous and rugged coast, and is traversed by mountain

Corygaum.

Much of the province is still Iron, silver, copper, and coal The chief town is Corunna,

ridges, between which run a number of small rivers. woodland, and wild boars infest the original forests. are found. There is a moderate degree of agriculture. CORVEI (Corbeia Nova), a Benedictine abbey on the Weser, near Höxter, the oldest and most famous in early Saxony, founded in the beginning of the 9th century. It was a colony from the monastery of the same name in Picardy, then part of the country of the West Franks. It received rich endowments; was the center of great agricultural improvement and prosperity during the earlier part of the middle ages; and the seat of a school, founded by Ansgar, the apostle of the north, which_flourished greatly in the 9th and 10th centuries, and was next in reputation to Fulda. Its abbots were numbered amongst the spiritual princes of the German empire. In 1794, it was made a bishopric by Pius VI. Its territory then extended to about 22 sq.m., with 10,000 inhabitants. In 1803, it was annexed to Nassau, from which it was transferred in 1807 to Westphalia, and in 1815 to Prussia. In 1822, the lands belonging to the ancient abbey passed into the hands of count Victor Amadeus von Hessen Rheinfels-Rothenburg, which were formed into a mediate principality of the Germanic empire. The church of the abbey is built in the Gothic style, very magnificently adorned in the interior, and contains a multitude of monuments of successive dynasties. The library and archives of the cloister, which contained most valuable records of the early ages of German history, have all been destroyed-the authenticity of the Chronicon Corbejense, an alleged record of this abbey from its foundation to the end of the 12th c., being doubtful.

CORVETTE', is a flush-decked vessel, ship-rigged, but without a quarter-deck, and having only one tier of guns. See illus., NAVY, vol. X., p. 440, fig. 2.

COR VIDÆ, a family of birds of the order insessores, tribe conirostres, having a strong bill, compressed towards the point, and covered at the base with stiff, bristly feathers, which advance so far as to conceal the nostrils. The plumage is dense, soft, and lustrous, very generally dark, but sometimes of gay colors, more particularly in the tropical species. The birds of this family are widely diffused over the world. They are generally birds of strong and rapid flight; some of them are solitary, some gregarious in their habits; some reside in woods, some in moors and wastes, some on seacoasts, etc. They are very omnivorous. They are also remarkable for their intelligence, their prying curiosity, and their disposition to pilfer and secrete glittering articles. Besides the crows, raven, rook, and jackdaw, which belong to the genus corvus, the magpie, jay, chough, and nut-cracker are included among the C. of Britain. CORVINUS, MATTHIAS. See MATTHIAS CORVINUS.

COR'VO, the most northerly of the Azores, is the smallest among the inhabited islands of the group. It measures only 6 m. by 3, the latitude of its southern point being 39° 42' north. It is of volcanic origin, and has, in an exhausted crater, a small lake 1277 ft. above the sea. With a fertile soil and a delicious climate, C. contains barely 1000 inhabitants, and these generally poor.

CORVUS, M. VALERIUS, a general of the early Roman republic, b. about 370 B.C. He was twice dictator and six times consul, and occupied the curule chair 21 times. He defeated the Gauls, the Volsci, the Samnites, the Etruscans, and the Marsi. He lived to be 100 years old.

COR WEN, a t. in North Wales, in the n.e. of Merionethshire, situated on the right bank of the Dee, 10 m. w. of Llangollen. It is sheltered by a rock at the foot of the Berwyn mountains. Pop. of parish '80, 3,000. Here the Welsh under Owen Gwynedd defeated Henry II., and afterwards under Owen Glyndwr defeated Henry IV.

CORWIN, THOMAS, 1794-1865; b. Ky.; a lawyer, practicing in Ohio, where his eloquence soon made him politically prominent. He was a leading member of the whig party, and a member of congress in 1830. In 1840, he was chosen governor of his state; in 1845, elected to the U. S. senate, where he made a powerful speech against the proposed war with Mexico. In 1850, he was secretary of the treasury; in 1858, again a member of congress; and in 1861, minister to Mexico. He was a man of great force of character.

CORYBAN TES, priests of Cybele, in Phrygia, who celebrated her worship by dressing in full armor and performing loose dances to the music of flutes and cymbals. It is said that under the influence of the music and the dance they became insane, and were supposed to be possessed by spirits. In Rome the priests of Cybele were called Galli.

CORYDAL'IS. See FUMARIACEÆ.

CORYELL, a co. in central Texas on Leon river; 960 sq.m.; pop. '80, 10,924-385 colored. The surface is rolling or hilly, with timber-land and prairie. Stock-raising is the principal business. Co. seat, Gatesville.

CORYGAUM', an insignificant village in the presidency of Bombay, is historically interesting in connection with the final subjugation of the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. On 1st Jan., 1818, it was defended for nine hours by a mere handful of men under capt. Staunton against a native force numbering at least 3,000 infantry and about 20,000

Cosmogony.

cavalry, the struggle terminating in the repulse of the assailants after terrible slaughter. C. stands 16 m. to the n.e. of Poona, in lat. 18° 39′ n., and long. 74° 8' east.

CORYLA CEE. See CUPULIFERÆ.

COR'YLUS. See HAZEL.

COR'YMB, in botany, a form of indefinite and centripetal inflorescence, in which the flowers are arranged as in a raceme (q.v), but the lower flower-stalks are elongated so as to bring the flowers almost to the level of those of the upper. The C. is a very common form of inflorescence.

CORYMBIF ERE. See COMPOSITE.

CORYM'BUS (Gr. korumbus), the particular mode of dressing the hair among the Greeks, with which the statues of Venice have rendered us familiar. The hair was often covered with a sort of open ornamental work.

COR YPHA. See FAN PALM, GEBANG PALM, and TALIPAT PALM.

CORYPHÆ'US (from Gr. koruphe, a summit), the leader of the chorus in ancient Greece. The name is now used to signify those of the highest distinction in any art or science. In the Italian opera the choir-leader is called the corifèo; in French, coryphée.

CORYPHENE, Coryphana, a genus of fishes of the family scomberide, to which the name DOLPHIN, properly belonging to a genus of cetacea, has by some mistake been popularly transferred. The coryphenes are remarkable for the beauty and metallic brilliancy of their colors, which delight the spectator as they are seen gliding with extreme rapidity near the surface of the water, gleaming in the light of the sun; and the changes of which, as they lie dying on the shore or on the deck of a vessel, have acquired a peculiar poetic celebrity. They have an elongated compressed body, covered with small scales, the head rising in a sharp crest, the mouth large. They are natives of the seas of warm climates, and some species are found in the Mediterranean, among which is the C. hippuris, the largest known, attaining a length of 5 feet. This and some of the other species are often seen playing around ships; and great interest is occasionally awakened by their pursuit of shoals of flying-fish. In this chase, a C. may be seen to dart completely out of the water, making a leap of 10 yards or more. Čapt. Basil Hall likens the velocity to that of a cannon-ball. The C. is often caught by sailors, with a glittering bit of metal instead of a bait.

COS (more anciently Meropis), an island of the Grecian archipelago belonging to Asiatic Turkey. Its modern name is Stanko or Stanchio. C. has a length of 23 m., with a breadth of 5, and a pop. of from 20,000 to 30,000, the half of whom are Greeks; the other half being Turks and Jews, who congregate in the towns. On the eastern side of the island a range of hills extends along the coast, from cape Fonka on the n., to point Korkilo on the s.; but with this exception, C. consists mostly of delightful and fertile plains, which are well cultivated. S. of these plains, on which stands the principal town, of the same name as the island, rises a high mountain range, which, from its jagged summit, is called mount Prion-the" sawing" mount, or sierra. There are many mineral springs on the island. The exports consist principally of raisins, lemons, salt, and grain. They amount annually to about £50,000. The chief imports are oil, soap, butter, butcher-meat, and English manufactures. The climate in general is pretty healthy. Many ancient Greek remains are scattered over the island. The chief town, Comopolis or Cos, is situated on the n.e. coast. It is built on the ruins of the ancient city of the same name; and in the center of the chief street is a gigantic palm-tree, said to have stood there before the Christian era. To the n.w. is an old fortress of the knights of St. John. The harbor is small, with only about 6 ft. of water in it. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in agriculture. Modern Greek is the language spoken. In early times C. was sacred to the worship of Esculapius. It was the birthplace of Ptolemy Philadelphus, of the painter Apelles, and the physician Hippocrates.

COSCIN'OMANCY, a species of divination practiced from the earliest times by means of a sieve (Gr. koskinon) and a pair of shears or forceps. It appears to have been chiefly employed for the discovery of thieves. The sieve was supported or suspended by means of the shears, in some way not easily understood; a certain mystical form of words was then used, and the names of the suspected persons being mentioned in succession, at the name of the thief the sieve moved or turned round.

COSENZA, a province in Calabria, s. Italy, between the gulf of Tarento and the Mediterranean; 2,841 sq.m.; pop. 440,468. The region is mountainous, being traversed by the Apennines down to the sea. The vine, the olive, silk, and fruits are cultivated. COSEN ZA, a t. of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, about lat. 39° 20' n., long. 16° 15' east. It is situated 12 m. e. of the Mediterranean, in a mountaininclosed valley at the confluence of the Crati and the Busento, the waters dividing the town into two parts. The lower town is much affected by malaria arising from the river marshes, but the upper town is tolerably healthy. It is the residence of the principal families, and contains some handsome buildings, including a cathedral, and an unusually fine court-house. The streets generally are narrow and crooked. C. has considerable industry, the principal articles of manufacture being silk, earthenware, and cutlery, Pop. 1881, 16,686. Anciently, C., called Consentia, was a city of the Brutii. It was

captured by the Carthaginian general Himilco, and was forced to surrender (204 B.C.) to the Romans, who afterwards colonized it. Alaric the Goth died here 410 A.D., and is buried in the bed of the Busento. Area of province (formerly called Calabria Citra), 3,000 sq.m.; pop. '81, 451,271.

COSHOCTON, a co. in central Ohio, on the Muskingum river and its tributaries, traversed by the Ohio canal, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati and St. Louis railroad; 516 sq.m.; pop. '80, 26,640. The surface is hilly, and the soil is generally productive; wheat, corn, oats, butter, and wool are the chief productions. Co. seat, Coshocton.

CO-SINE, CO-TANGENT, etc. See TRIGONOMETRY.

COS'MAS, surnamed Indicopleustes, a merchant of Alexandria, who lived in the middle of the 6th c., and after having traveled much, returned to Egypt, where he spent the evening of his days in monastic retirement, and wrote a Christian Topography in 12 vols., in the Greek language, containing much information about many countries, and particularly about India. An attempt to reconcile everything to his notions of the meaning of the Bible has led him into many errors. The work (which, among other things, gives the first account of the Monumentum Adulitanum, see ADULE) has been edited by Montfaucon in the Nova Collectio Patrum Græcorum, vol. ii. (Par. 1707). C. wrote also a description of the plants and animals of India, which was published by Thevenot in his Relations de Divers Voyages Curieux, vol. i. (Par. 1666).

COSMETICS (Gr. kosmeo, I adorn) are chemical preparations employed for improving the appearance of the skin and hair. Several of the C. in use are comparatively harmless, such as perfumed starch and chalk; whilst others, such as pearl white (the subnitrate of bismuth), are more or less poisonous, and dangerous to use. At all times, the

employment of C. is not to be commended, as the minute particles tend to fill up and clog the pores of the skin, and prevent the free passage of gases and vapors, which is so essential to the preservation of any animal organ in a thorough state of health.

COSMO DE' MEDICI. See MEDICI.

COSMOG ONY (Gr. kosmos, the universe; gone, generation) is the (so-called) science of the formation of the universe. It is thus distinguished from cosmography, which is the science of the parts of the universe as we behold it (a science embodied in the work of Humboldt, entitled Cosmos), and from cosmology, which reasons on the actual and permanent state of the world as it is. Geogony, which confines itself to the formation of the earth, and speculative geology, are but subdivisions of cosmogony.

Cosmogonists proper may be divided into two classes-the theistical, and the pantheistical. According to theistic C., the world of matter and order sprang at once into existence at the Omnific fiat. The chief speculations from this point of view, have of late been regarding the date, if the expression may be used, of the world's formation, and, looking to the facts of geology and astronomy, the precise condition of the cosmos when evoked; how much, in short, of the evolution, since the date, is attributable to the operation of secondary causes. The pantheists hold the universe, on the other hand, to be the very body and being of Deity, and as such to have been from all eternity. God is all things, and all things are God--a conclusion reached from pure à priori reasoning, and that seems to exclude all further inquiry.

Men of science, in modern times, stopping short of an actual C. or genesis of the world, have pushed their inquiries into the order of development of its present state, which they, or at least some of them, aver to have taken place from the first by the divine power exercised in the manner of natural law. They assume the existence of matter; and with them there is no proper beginning of things, but an eternal round, 'under fixed laws of growth and decay.

In cosmogonical speculations, heat, air, atoms with rotatory motions, numbers-all in turn have had the honor of being recognized as the fountain and causes of things. Latterly, there has been a tendency to dynamical hypotheses, not only of the formation of our own rotating globe, but of our system, and of all similar systems in space. Of these, the chief is that of Laplace, founded on observation of the mutual relations of the planets, their common direction in rotation and revolution, their general conformity to one plane, etc.; taken in connection with such facts as the rings of Saturn and the fundamental unity of the asteroids. Thus arose the Nebular Theory (q.v.), which at one time had a support from sir William Herschel's observations on the nebula; of which, however, the discoveries by lord Rosse's telescope in a great measure deprived it. Following up this view of a formation of the globes by natural causes, there have been speculations as to the commencement and progress of organic life upon them by similar means: these are to be found in the Philosophie Zoologique of Lamarck; the Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation; and in the work of Charles Darwin on the Origin of Species by a Principle of Natural Selection; all of which involve great differences of view among themselves, though all meeting in one point-an assimilation of the processes of creation to the ordinary natural course of things presumed to be arranged and conducted by the Deity.

COSMOGONY (ante), properly denotes the science of the world's formation, but, in the absence of knowledge, is applied to theories on the subject and even to mythical accounts. The views of the ancients in regard to it may be comprised in three classes.

IV.-12a.