Constantine.

CONSTANT is the name given, in mathematical analysis, to a quantity which remains the same for all cases of the problem, in opposition to a variable. Thus, in questions about the fall of bodies in given times, the force of gravity is a constant quantity. In the integral calculus, the name of constants is given to those quantities which, after integration, are annexed to the integral.

CONSTANT, BENJAMIN. See page 890.

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CONSTANT DE REBEQUE, HENRI BENJAMIN, one of the most distinguished political writers and orators of France, was b. at Lausanne on the 25th Oct., 1767. Educated in a German college, he afterwards spent some time at Edinburgh university, and here he is supposed to have imbibed those ideas of political freedom which guided him through life. In 1796, he published in Paris a pamphlet on the government then existing, which brought him into note; and three years later, he was placed on the "tribunat" by Napoleon, who, however, two years after, dismissed and banished him for the spirit he displayed in resisting the first consul's encroachments on liberty. During his banishment, he traveled for some time with Madame de Staël, and afterwards settled in Germany. In 1813, he published his celebrated pamphlet, On the Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation. In 1814, he returned to Paris, where he wrote several pamphlets in favor of constitutional liberty, which he maintained was enjoyed under Louis XVIII. Napoleon's government he described as a "government of Mamelukes," and the emperor himself as a Genghis khan." Yet during the hundred days he became a councillor of state, and assisted in framing the Acte Additionnel. In 1819, he was elected a deputy, became ultimately leader of the opposition, and in this capacity gained unbounded popularity. C. de R. was a true patriot. He loved liberty better than monarchies or mobs, and therefore, while he opposed the despotic measures of the government of Charles X., he deplored the revolution of July, 1830. He died Dec., 1830. As a public speaker, C. de R. was in his day the clearest and most persuasive advocate of constitutional principles in France. As a political writer, he was even fully more effective than as a speaker. Among his works may be mentioned Discours Prononcés à la Chambre des Députés (2 vols., Par. 1828); the Cours de Politique Constitutionnelle (4 vols., Par. 1817–20, 2d ed., 1833), in which are collected his minor works on representative government. Among his most ambitious works are Mémoires sur les Cent Jours (Par. 1820); De la Religion considérée dans sa Source, ses Formes, et ses Développements (5 vols., Par., 1824–31), to which posthumous work his Du Polythéisme Romain, considéré dans ses Rapports avec la Philosophie Grecque et la Religion Chrétienne, forms a kind of supplement.

CONSTAN'TIA, a district of Cape Colony, in South Africa, lying on the eastern and n.e. slopes of Table mountain range, and distant from Cape Town about 12 miles. C. consists of only two estates, Great Constantia and Little Constantia, which have long been famed for the quality of the wines produced upon them. Many attempts have been made in other parts of Cape Colony, as also in France and the s. of Europe, to produce a wine similar in quality and flavor to the C., but all have failed; and it is now known that not only to the quality of the C. grape, but also to the character of the soil, as well as to the peculiarly genial exposure of the district, the characteristic excellence of the C. (proper) wines is traceable. The soil of the estates is rich in alkalies to an extent perceptible in the grape itself, and the vineyards have a very equable exposure, being sheltered from all sudden changes of temperature by spurs of the great granite mountain. The grapes under this shelter ripen very uniformly, so that the earthy taste, which spoils the character of other cape wines, and which is produced by using unpicked grapes of different degrees of ripeness in the same bunch, does not attach to the C. wines.

Although the attempts made on other farms in the colony to produce wine similar to that of C., have failed in so far as the peculiar flavor as well as lusciousness of real C. are concerned, yet they have led of late to great improvements in the quality of several of the South African wines; and where care continues to be bestowed, and the habits of different vines in relation to soil and exposure are more studied, we have evidence in the quality of the improved "Pontac," and other wines of Wynberg, of what can be accomplished with increased labor by Cape Calony as a wine-producing country. Statistics of the wine trade of this settlement show, however, that only a small quantity of genuine wines finds its way into the market-much of that which passes under the name being similar but inferior cape wines. The produce of the C. vineyards sells even in the colony at not less than 68. per bottle.

CONSTANTI'NA, a t. of Spain, in Andalusia, situated in a mountainous district, about 40 m. n.n.e. of Seville, to which city it supplies much fruit and ice. It has manufactures of leather and soap, distilleries, flour-mills, etc. Pop. 10,988.

CONSTANTINE, the capital of a province of the same name (the easternmost province of the French colony of Algeria), is situated on a hill with flat summit, three sides of which are washed by the Rummel, flowing through a deep and narrow ravine, and the fourth is connected by a natural mound with the surrounding mountains. Lat. 36° 22' n., long. 6° 37' east. It is 830 ft. above the river, and 2,162 ft. above the sea. It is surrounded by walls constructed by the Arabs out of Roman sculptured stones, and a fine old Roman bridge spans the ravine on one side. The streets, as in the other towns of Barbary, are very narrow and dirty, and the houses mean. An old church in the Byzantine style is included in the citadel. C. was anciently one of the most important

Constantine.

towns of Numidia, called Carta by the Carthaginians, Cirta by the Romans, and was long a royal residence. It was destroyed in the wars of Maxentius against Alexander about 311 A.D., but was soon rebuilt by Constantine the great, from whom it derives its present name, and continued to subsist, and was a flourishing town in the 12th century Subsequently, it shared in general the fortunes of Algeria (q.v.). C. has manufactures of woolen cloths, saddlery, and other articles of leather. Pop. '81, 38,357, of whom some 7,000 are Europeans.

CONSTANTINE I., FLAVIUS VALERIUS AURELIUS, surnamed "the great," a Roman emperor, was b. 272 or 274 A.D., at Naissus, in Moesia. He was the eldest son of Constantius Chlorus, and first distinguished himself by his military talents under Diocletian, in that monarch's famous Egyptian expedition, 296; subsequently he served under Galerius in the Persian war. In 305, the two emperors, Diocletian and Maximian, abdicated, and were succeeded by Constantius Chlorus and Galerius. Galerius, who could not endure the brilliant and energetic genius of C., took every means of exposing him to danger, and it is believed that this was the period when he acquired that mixture of reserve, cunning, and wisdom, which was so conspicuous in his conduct in afteryears. At last C. fled to his father, who ruled in the west, and joined him at Boulogne just as he was setting out on an expedition against the Picts in North Britain. Constantius died at York, July 25, 306, having proclaimed his son C. his successor. The latter now wrote a conciliatory letter to Galerius, and requested to be acknowledged as Augustus. Galerius did not dare to quarrel with C., yet he granted him the title of Cæsar only. Political complications now increased, and in a short time no less than six emperors were "in the field "-viz., Galerius, Licinius, and Maximin in the east, and Maximian, Maxentius his son, and Constantine in the west, 308 A.D. Maxentius having quarreled with his father, forced him to flee from Rome; he took refuge with C., but was ungrateful enough to plot the destruction of his benefactor. This being discovered, he fled to Marseilles, the inhabitants of which city gave him up to C., who put him to death, 309 A.D. Maxentius professed great anger at the death of his father, and assembled a large army, with which he threatened Gaul. Crossing the Alps by Mont Cénis, C. thrice defeated Maxentius-first near Turin, then under the walls of Verona, and finally in the vicinity of Rome, 28th Oct., 312, Maxentius himself in the last of these engagements being drowned in an attempt to escape across the Tiber. C. now entered the capital, disbanded the Prætorians, and adopted other judicious measures for allaying the public exitement. He was also honored with the title of pontifex maximus, or supreme dignitary of the pagan hierarchy.

C. was now sole emperor of the west. Similarly, by the death of Galerius in 311, and of Maximin in 313, Licinius became sole emperor of the east. In 314, a war broke out between the two rulers, in which Licinius had the worst, and was fain to conclude a peace by the cession of Illyricum, Pannonia, and Greece. C. gave Licinius his sister Constantina in marriage, and for the next nine years devoted himself vigorously to the correction of abuses in the administration of the laws, to the strengthening of the frontiers of his empire, and to the chastising the barbarians, who learned to fear and respect his power. In 323, he renewed the war with Licinius, whom he defeated, and ultimately put to death. C. was now at the summit of his ambition, the sole governor of the Roman world. He chose Byzantium for his capital, and in 330, solemnly inaugurated it as the seat of government, under the name of Constantinople or City of Constantine. In 324, he committed a deed that has thrown a dark shade over his memory. He had a gallant and accomplished son, named Crispus, who was exceedingly popular, and him, along with Constantina and others, he put to death on a charge of treason. Niebuhr shows that it was not unlikely Crispus cherished ambitious designs. Next year occurred the great council of Nice. C. sided with the orthodox fathers, probably for very heterodox reasons. As yet he was a pagan, but his sense of justice, and his conviction of the growing importance of the Christians, both as a moral and political element in the life of the empire, had from the very first induced him to protect them. As early as 313, he had everywhere granted them toleration, and since then continued to favor them more and more decidedly. As president of the Nicene council, he opposed the Arians, on political grounds, as the weaker party; but not being theologically interested in the dissensions, he refrained from active persecution. During the latter years of his life, Christianity became the state religion, the pagan temples were closed, and sacrifices forbidden. Yet it was only a short time before his death, which occurred 22d July, 337, that he would allow himself to be baptized.

The question has been much discussed, whether or not C. was a Christian. The truth seems to be, that he looked upon religion as a statesman, who feels that his first duty is to rule the nation over which he is set in an orderly and peaceable manner. Had paganism been still in its prime, and possessed any real political vitality, it is not likely that a man of C.'s secular temperament would have troubled himself in regard to the new faith; but when he found that the latter was making rapid progress in spite of the fiercest persecution, he must have felt it wisest, and probably also conceived it right, to protect and favor it. But he continued to the last addicted to many pagan superstitions. As an emperor, however, he ranks very high. He was beloved by his people, for whose welfare he seems to have honestly labored. Severe

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and even sanguinary towards individuals, he was just and moderate towards nations. He conquered every enemy, organized a new and better mode of government for his vast dominions, crushed all conspiracies and revolts, and passed the close of his life in peace. See illus., ROMAN ART, vol. XII., p. 742, fig. 10.

CONSTANTINE II., 312-40; eldest son of Constantine the great. On the death of his father the empire was divided between the three surviving sons, but Constantine II. being the eldest was considered the emperor.

CONSTANTINE VII., PORPHYROGENITUS, 905-59; Roman emperor of the east, son of Leo VI. He paid more attention to literature than to state affairs, leaving the latter to his wife Helena. It is reported that he was poisoned by his son Romanus, who was his successor. He wrote a life of his grandfather, Basil I., a work on government, for the instruction of his son, and several other treatises.

CONSTANTINE XIII., PALEOLOGUS, the last of the emperors of the east, b. 1394; killed at the capture of Constantinople in 1453. When Mohammed II. set about the taking of Constantinople and the final subjugation of the eastern empire, Constantine appealed in vain to the princes of Christendom. A long siege preceded the capture of the city, but it was accomplished May 29, 1453, and Constantine was slain by some unknown hand. The body was recognized and the head was brought to Mohammed, but he gave the body an honorable burial.

CONSTANTINE, NICOLAEWITCH, grand-duke of Russia, b. 21st Sept., 1827, is the second son of the late emperor Nicholas, and the brother of Alexander II. He is grandadmiral of the Russian fleet, and holds besides innumerable military offices. During the Crimean war, he commanded the Russian fleet in the Baltic, and directed the defensive preparations which held the English and French armaments in check before Cronstadt. The leader of the old Russian party, he strenuously opposed the concessions made to the western powers. In 1857, however, he visited the courts of England and France, and in 1871, he paid a second visit to England. On the outbreak of the Polish insurrection in 1862, C. held the office of viceroy of Poland for three months. In Jan., 1865, he was appointed president of the council of the empire.

CONSTANTINE, PAULOWITCH, a Russian grand-duke, b. 8th May, 1779, was the second son of the emperor Paul I. He early distinguished himself by activity, intellectual ability, and a gallantry bordering on foolhardiness, of which he gave remarkable proof at the battle of Austerlitz. After the congress of Vienna, the government of Poland was intrusted to him by his brother, the emperor Alexander. In Jan., 1822, he executed a private deed by which he resigned his claims to the throne in the event of Alexander's death; and when that event took place in 1825, he adhered to this resignation, although he had meanwhile in his absence been proclaimed emperor in St. Petersburg. The succession thus fell to his younger brother Nicholas. The character of C.'s administration in Poland was not such as to conciliate any class of the people, and a widely ramified conspiracy was formed. The French revolution of 1830 supplied the spark which set all in flame, and C. was obliged to flee for his life, but he returned in command of the army of reserve. He died, however, of cholera at Vitebsk, on 27th June, 1831.

CONSTANTINO PLE, called by the Turks Stamboul or Istamboul, was originally called Byzantium (q.v.). In 330 A.D., the emperor Constantine made it the capital of the Roman empire, and called it after his own name, Constantinople. From this period dates its importance. It continued thenceforth to be the residence of the Roman, and afterwards of the Byzantine emperors, tili in 1453 it was taken by the Turks. Since that time it has been the capital of Turkey, and the principal residence of the sultans. It is situated in lat. 41° n., and long. 28° 59' e., on the European side of the channel of Constantinople or Thracian Bosporus, near to its opening into the sea of Marmora. A narrow arm of the sea, called the Golden Horn, extends about 5 m. into the land, and forms a safe and most commodious harbor, with water of sufficient depth to float the largest men of war. C. proper, to which Europeans give the name of Stamboul to distinguish it from the northern and eastern suburbs of C., lies entirely on the southern side of the Golden Horn, and is protected by a wall built during the time of the Byzantine empire, and partially restored by the Turks. The wall is about 12 m. in circuit, and is pierced by 28 gates, amongst which that of Top-Kapussi, formerly that of St. Romanus, has a historic interest, as being the one through which the Turks entered when they stormed the city, and where the last of the Palæologi died in the fight. The suburbs of Galata, Pera, and Top-hanêh are situated on the northern side of the Golden Horn. On the Asiatic side of the Bosporus lie Scutari and Kadiköi (the ancient Chalcedon), and to the n.w. of the city lies the town of Eyub. The city itself is built on hilly ground, and from this circumstance, and its numerous gardens, cypresses, mosques, palaces, minarets, and towers, it presents, especially as seen from the side of the Golden Horn, a very spendid appearance. The scenery of the Thracian Bosporus is of almost unrivaled beauty; and the panorama, of which C. forms the principal part, is such as is perhaps nowhere else to be seen in the world. But a nearer approach reveals the characteristics of an eastern town-narrow, crooked, filthy streets, and miserable houses of wood and clay. Since the Crimean war, however, C. has been wonderfully improved. Great

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fires, which occurred on the 6th and 7th Sept., 1865, the 3d May, 1866, and on 5th June, 1870, swept away square miles of old wooden houses on both sides of the Golden Horn. On these spaces handsome stone houses have been built in the modern European style; but this has not been done with much system, and there are in all directions great gaps filled with miserable wooden huts, or left as waste places. The formation of tramways has, however, tended to connect the improved districts by wider thoroughfares, and to form a general plan which is gradually giving to C. the appearance of a European city. C. contains many fine buildings, among which may be mentioned the Seraglio, occupying the position of ancient Byzantium, and measuring about 3 m. in circumference; the former church of St. Sophia, now a mosque, is a most magnificent structure, in the form of a Greek cross, 269 ft. long by 243 broad, and has a flattened dome, greatly admired for its lightness, 180 ft. above the ground. The other important mosques are those of Solyman, Achmed, Sultan Mohammed II. and Eyub. The two obelisks of the ancient hippodrome, called by the Turks the Atmeidan; the castle of the seven towers, now in a state of dilapidation; the aqueducts erected by the emperor Valens; the cistern of Philoxenus, with 424 columns of marble; and the numerous fountains, are among the other most notable objects of Constantinople. The covered bazaars of C. are very numerous, and the goods are displayed with wonderful attractiveness. One feature of C. is its vast number of lean and hungry dogs, which haunt the streets. The dogs are the common property of the city, and they do a considerable portion of the scavenging. Galata, which was founded by the Genoese as a republic in the Byzantine times, is the residence of European merchants and the principal place of trade. It contains many great warehouses, shops, and dwelling-houses, but is, if possible, even more filthy than C. proper. Bridges of boats connect the opposite sides of the Golden Horn. Further eastward, on the Bosporus, lies Top-haneh, with the imperial cannon foundry, a beautiful mosque, and an interesting fountain. On the hill behind Galata and Top-hanêh, is situated Pera, the residence of the foreign ambassadors. Two thirds of Pera were burned to the ground by the fire of 5th June, 1870. Three thousand houses were then entirely destroyed, including that of the English ambassador; and 40,000 persons were left without shelter. Before the fire, Pera had a European pop. of 70,000, which was reduced by the catastrophe to more than one half. Pera is not being rebuilt on its old site, but new streets are spreading round it and Galata. In 1875, Pera was connected with C. by an underground railway 672 yards long, which is reckoned to convey 30,000 passengers daily.

The population of C. and its suburbs has been variously estimated. In 1884, it probably contained from 900,000 to 1,075,000 inhabitants, of whom about one half were Mohammedans, one fourth Greeks and Armenians, one eighth Franks, and one eighth Jews. The mosques are more than 300 in number. There are several Greek churches, under a patriarch, with twelve synodal bishops. The patriarch is not only the spiritual, but in part also the temporal head of the Greek subjects of the porte. C. is the residence also of an Armenian patriarch, and there are several Roman Catholic and Protestant places of worship. There are in connection with the mosques about 300 medresses, or schools for the ulemas; there are also some 400 mekteb, or Turkish elementary schools; and among the other educational institutions is a school of medicine conducted by Germans, which has been the means of much good. Among the benevolent institutions are numerous imarets, where food is provided for the poor, and hospitals for the sick of several European nations. There are public libraries, both Turkish and Greek, of which that of the Seraglio is particularly rich in the treasures of oriental literature; and there are several Turkish and European printing-presses. The public baths and coffeehouses are exceedingly numerous. Some of the peculiar manufactures of the east are carried on in leather, carpets, weapons, etc. But all the manufactures of western Europe abound in its markets. The trade of C. has, since the Crimean war, been steadily increasing, but is by no means so extensive as might be expected from its population and situation. The burden of the vessels entering and of those clearing the port is estimated at about four millions of tons. The trade is chiefly in the hands of Greeks, Italians, Austrians, British, French, and Germans.

The great strategical value of the site of C. has always lent it a peculiar military and political importance. Extensive fortifications at some distance on the landward side of C. were undertaken during the Russian war of 1877, and were carried out under the superintendence of an English officer in the Turkish service. These lines extend from Buyuk-Tchekmedgi on the sea of Marmora to lake Derkos on the Black sea, a distance of about 20 miles. They run along a range of steep hills, from 200 to 500 ft. in height, looking down on a long and wide bare valley. Eight miles distant across the valley runs the parallel range of the Tchataldja hills, from 500 to 1500 ft. high.

C. is now connected by railway with the interior of northern Turkey, and the northwestern part of Asia Minor. The first through express train from western Europe, inaugurating a direct service with Paris, reached Stamboul station on Nov. 10, 1888. Salonica and Uskub in western Turkey, also, are connected, and there is another line from Smyrna to Aidin. See illus., TURKEY, vol. XIV., p. 622, figs. 1-3.

CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF. Eight have been held which are recognized as ecumenical either by the Greek or Latin church, or by both. The first was the 2d

ecumenical council of the church, convened in 381 by the emperor Theodosius I. t legalize his violent ejectment of the Arians from the eastern churches. It consisted of 150 bishops, chosen under the dictation of the emperor and chiefly from the east, besides the semi-Arians, followers of Macedonius of Constantinople, who withdrew after their opinions had been condemned. This council condemned also the Arians, Eunomians, and Eudoxians; it reaffirmed the resolutions of the council of Nice, and declared that the bishop of Constantinople, or new Rome, was, of right, next in rank to the bishop of old Rome; both of them being alike subject only to the emperor. The second was the 5th ecumenical council of the church, convened in 553 by Justinian I. to sustain his condemnation of three distinguished teachers of the Antiochian school whose opinions had been collected into three chapters." There were 165 bishops, mostly eastern, in attendance. They condemned the "three chapters" and included in the sentence Vigilius, bishop of Rome, because he would not condemn them absolutely. The third was the 6th ecumenical council, held in 680, and consisting of 289 bishops, including three eastern patriarchs and four Roman legates. Through the influence of the legates, the council condemned the doctrine of Honorius that as there was only one Christ, so he had only one will," and recognized in him, consistently with the doctrine of two natures in one person, two wills made one by the moral subordination of the human to the divine. The fourth was the council held in 691, by command of Justinian II. It is recog nized as ecumenical only by the Greeks, and is called "quinisextum" because it supplemented the 5th and 6th. It passed more than one hundred canons concerning the morals of the clergy and church discipline. The fifth was held in 754 and attended by 383 bishops. It is recognized only by the Greeks. It issued a decree against image worship, which was revoked in 786 by the 2d ecumenical council of Nice. The sixth was held in 869, and is recognized only by the Latin church. It deposed the patriarch Photius, restored Ignatius, and enacted laws concerning church discipline. The seventh was held in 879. There were 380 bishops present, including the Roman legates. It recalled Photius, repealed the action of the preceding council against him, and defined the position of the patriarch of Constantinople in relation to the pope. The eighth was held in 1341, and is called by the Greeks the 9th ecumenical. It condemned Barlaam, an educated monk, as heretical in opposing the monks of mount Athos, who asserted the possibility of attaining, while yet in the body, an intuition of the divine light and essence by a perfect cessation of corporeal life.

CONSTANTIUS, or CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS, 250-306 A.D.; Emperor of Rome and father of Constantine the great. He became emperor in

805, when Diocletian abdicated, and ruled over Gaul, Spain, and Britain.

CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS JULIUS, b. 317 A.D. He inherited by his father's will the Asiatic provinces and Egypt. He made war upon the Persians, but was defeated. He was favorable to the Arians, and gave the title of cæsar (emperor) to his cousin and successor Julian.

CONSTELLATION (Lat. con, together, and stella, a star), a group of stars. The stars which stud the firmament have, from a time earlier than authentic records can trace, been formed into artificial groups, which have received names borrowed from fancy or fable. These groups are called constellations. Though quite devoid of anything like systematic arrangement, this traditional grouping is found a sufficiently convenient classification, and still remains the basis of nomenclature for the stars among astronomers. Before the invention of almanacs, the risings and settings of the constellations were looked to by husbandmen, shepherds, and sea-faring men as the great landmarks of the seasons, and consequently of the weather which each season was expected to bring with it (see Job xxxviii. 31); and it is not surprising if the storms or calm weather that usually accompanied such seasons were connected, in the popular imagination, with the influence of the stars themselves, or the beings with whom superstition or fable identified them. Thus, the risings and settings of Bootes with the bright star Arcturus, which took place near the equinoxes, portended great tempests. See Virgil's Georgics, i. 204. The great heat in July was ascribed to the rising of Canis the dog, with its bright star Sirius. See CANICULAR DAYS; and HELIACAL RISING. The appearance of the twins, Castor and Pollux, was hailed as the harbinger of fair summer weather.

Almost all nations have, from early times, arranged the stars into constellations, but it is chiefly from the nomenclature of the Greeks and Romans that our own is derived. Eudoxus, a contemporary of Plato, about 370 years B.C., gave a description of the face of the heavens, containing the names and characters of all the constellations recognized in his time. Though this production is lost, a poetical paraphrase of it, written about a century later by Aratus (q.v.), is still extant. This poem describes twelve zodiacal constellations (see ZODIAC), with twenty in the northern hemisphere, and thirteen in the southern. The next enumeration occurs in the Almagest of Ptolemy, which includes the preceding, with three additional, one northern and two southern constellations, making in all 48. These are the ancient stellar groups. Large accessions have been made to the nomenclature in modern times, in consequence of maritime discovery having made us acquainted with constellations in the southern hemisphere which never rose upon the world known to our ancient authors. In 1751, Lacaille went to the Cape for the purpose of making a catalogue of the southern stars, and forming them into constel