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chiefly in tartan shawls and plaids, and have become favorably known in the production of tweeds. The district is likewise famed for its ale, there being seven breweries in the county. There are also extensive distilleries. There are manufactures of green glass bottles, earthenware, bricks, and tiles; also timber trade and ship-building. The chief exports are iron and coal. The columnar greenstone of abbey Craig, near Stirling, has come into use for grinding flour, which it does nearly as well as the French buhrstones. C. contains four parishes. The chief towns are Clackmannan, the co. town; Alloa, the most important place; and Dollar, noted for its endowed educational establishment. C., with Kinross-shire, returns one member to parliament; but the co. occupies the anomalous position of having parishes within its circumference politically-Alva in Stirlingshire, and Tulliallan and Culross in Perthshire-which it does not embrace judicially. In C. have been found Roman stone coffins, sepulchral vases, and old Roman coins. The marquis of Montrose, in 1645, burned castle Campbell, now a noble ruin situated on a wild but easily accessible eminence, on the brow of a hill immediately behind Dollar. In C., George Meikle constructed, in 1787, the first effective thrashing-machine in Scotland.

CLA'DIUM (Gr. clados, a branch or twig), a genus of plants of the natural order cyperaceae, of which one species, C. mariscus, is a native of Britain, particularly common in the bogs and fens of Cambridgeshire, where hundreds of acres are almost entirely covered with it. It is 3 to 5 ft. high, with a rounded leafy stem, the keel and margins of the leaves rough and almost prickly. It is consequently hurtful to cattle. It is used for thatching, and in Cambridgeshire also for lighting fires. The English name twig-rush has been given to it, but is only of recent invention.

CLADRASTIS, a small leguminous tree, resembling the common locust, having a yellow bark with cathartic properties. It is variously called yellow wood, yellow ash, yellow locust, and fustic.

CLAFLIN, WILLIAM. See page 882.

CLAGGETT, THOMAS JOHN, D.D., 1743-1816; a native of Maryland, ordained in England, and the first Protestant Episcopal bishop consecrated on this side of the Atlantic. In 1800, he was chaplain to the U. S. senate, and in 1808, he became rector of Trinity church, Marlborough, Ma.

CLAIBORNE, a parish in n. w. Louisiana, on the Arkansas border; 1200 sq.m.; pop. '80, 18,858-10,314 colored. It has an undulating surface partly covered with timber. The chief productions are cotton, corn, wool, and sweet potatoes. Co. seat, Homer.

CLAIBORNE, a cc. in s. w. Mississippi, on the Mississippi and the Big Black rivers; 740 sq.m.; pop.'80, 16,768-12,858 colored. The surface is uneven, and the soil is fertile, producing corn, potatoes, cotton, etc. Co. seat, Port Gibson.

CLAIBORNE, a co. in n.e. Tennessee, on the Kentucky border, bounded s. by Clinch river; 350 sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,373-780 colored. It has a rough mountainous surface, but fertile soil, with mines of lead, zinc, and iron. The chief productions are agricultural. Co. seat, Tazewell. The lumber product, '85, was valued at $1,000,000.

CLAIM, in English law, is a challenge of interest in anything that is in the possession of another, or at least out of a man's own possession. Claims are either verbal or by action, and relate either to lands or to goods and chattels; their object being generally to preserve a title which otherwise would be in danger of being lost.

CLAIM OF LIBERTY is a suit or petition to the queen in the court of exchequer, to have liberties and franchises confirmed there by the attorney-general (Tomiins' Law Dic.).

CLAIMS, COURT OF, in the United States, created by act of congress, Feb. 24, 1855, and consisted of three judges appointed by the president and senate, to hold office during good behavior, and to have jurisdiction to hear and determine all claims founded upon any act of congress, or on any regulation of any executive department, or upon any contract, express or implied, with the government of the United States; and all claims which might be referred to it by either house of congress. The United States were represented before it by a solicitor and assistant-solicitor appointed by the president; the solicitor being authorized to appoint a deputy, and the compensation of all members of the court was fixed by law. The court had no power to render a judgment which it could not execute, but reported to congress the cases upon which it had finally acted, the material facts which it found established by the evidence, with its opinion in the case, and reasons therefor, or what was equivalent to an opinion in the return of a judgment as to the rights of the parties upon the facts proved or admitted in the case. By another act, Mar. 3, 1863, two additional judges were to be appointed by the president, and a chief-justice from the whole number of judges (five). The court was also authorized to take jurisdiction of all set-offs, counter-claims, claims for damages, liquidated or unliquidated, or other demands whatsoever on the part of the government against any person making claim against the government in said court. If the judgment of the court be in favor of the government, it shall be filed in the office of the clerk of the proper district or circuit court of the United States, and shall ipso facto become and be a judgment of such district or circuit court, and shall be enforced the same as other judgments. If the judgment be in favor of the claimant, the sum thereby

found due to the claimant shall be paid out of any general appropriation made by law for the payment of private claims, on presentation to the secretary of the treasury of a duly certified copy of such judgment. In cases where the amount in controversy exceeds $3,000, an appeal may be taken to the supreme court of the United States at any time within 90 days after judgment. Where the judgment or decree may affect a constitutional question, or furnish a precedent affecting a class of cases, the United States may take an appeal without regard to the amount in controversy. Claims must be filed within six years after the claim accrues, except in cases of disability. The court is required to hold one session annually, commencing on the first Monday in Oct. Members of congress are prohibited from practicing in the court. At the instance of the solicitor of the United States, any claimant may be required to testify on oath. The jurisdiction of the court is not to extend to any claim growing out of any treaty with foreign nations or Indian tribes, unless such claim was pending in said court Dec. 1, 1862; nor shall the jurisdiction of the court extend to any claim against the United States for the destruction, appropriation, or damage of any property by the army or navy engaged in the suppression of the rebellion, from the commencement to the close thereof. Proceedings originate in the court by petition filed; and testimony used in the hearing and determination of claims is taken by commissioners who are appointed for the purpose by the court.

CLAIR, ST., a river of North America, being that part of the St. Lawrence, in its largest sense, which carries into lake St. Clair the waters of lake Huron. It is 30 m. long, and half a mile broad, and easily navigable, its depth being 50 feet. Lake St. Clair measures 30 m. in length by 12 in average width, and communicates at its s.w. end with lake Erie by means of the Detroit.

CLAIRAĆ, a t. of France, in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, situated on the Lot, about 16 m. n.w. of Agen. It has flour and paper mills, and a considerable trade. C. is chiefly interesting, however, as the first place in the s. of France that embraced the doctrines of the reformation, which it did in 1527, on the example of its abbot, Gerard Rouselle. It was the scene of frequent contests between Roman Catholics and Huguenots. Pop. '81, 3,000.

CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS CLAUDE, an eminent French mathematician, was b. at Paris, May 7, 1713. He early exhibited a most remarkable aptitude for mathematics, and was considered worthy of admission to the academy of sciences, while as yet he was only 18 years of age. C. wrote a great number of scientific papers, but his fame now rests principally upon his Figure of the Earth, in which he promulgated the theorem, that the variation of gravity on the surface of the earth, regarded as an elliptic spheroid, was altogether independent of the law of density, the opposite opinion having been previously held; on his explanation of the motion of the lunar apogee, a point left unexplained by Newton; and on his computation of the time of the return of Halley's comet. He died at Paris, May 17, 1765.

CLAIRE, ST., or Santa Clara, was b. in 1193, of a rich and noble family of Assisi, in the duchy of Spoletto. Attracted by the eloquence and piety of St. Francis of Assisi, she abandoned the pleasures of social life, in which she had previously indulged, and betook herself to solitude, prayer, and mystic meditation. Her imagination, excited by religious emotions, deceived her into the belief that she was in more direct communication with God than her fellow-mortals; and taking her own desires for divine intimations, she founded an order of nuns in 1212, and after obtaining a great reputation for sanctity, died at Assisi, Aug. 11, 1253. Two years afterwards, she was canonized by Alexander IV.

CLAIRE, ST., NUNS OF THE ORDER OF, a religious order founded by St. Claire, with the counsel and help of St. Francis of Assisi, in 1212. At first, the nuns observed the rule of St. Benedict, but in 1224 the austerity of this rule was mitigated by St. Francis, and again modified by Urban IV. in 1264. Those who follow the rule as modified by Urban, are called Urbanists; the other and austerer portion of the sisterhood, Damianists. The order_rapidly increased; and convents are numerous to the present day in Italy, France, Belgium, Bavaria, Asia, and America. The nuns devote themselves chiefly to the education of the young.

CLAIRVAUX, a village in the department of Aube, about 10 m. above Bar-surAube, on the left bank of the river, is remarkable as the site of the once famous Cistercian abbey (Clara Vallis), founded in 1114 by St. Bernard, who presided over it till his death in 1153, when he was buried in the church. Besides the original buildings, a new and splendid convent was afterwards erected, and a church which was reckoned a masterpiece of architecture, but was destroyed at the restoration. There was shown in the convent a monster cask, called "St. Bernard," which contained 800 tuns. The abbey, which had at one time a revenue of 120,000 livres, was suppressed at the revolution, and the extensive buildings are now used as a workhouse and house of correction.

CLAIRVOYANCE. See SOMNAMBULISM.

CLAIRVOY'ANCE, as explained by Mr. Hudson Tuttle-whose language is here in part adopted, but with some decided modifications—“must be regarded as a peculiar

state of the mind, in which it is in a greater or less degree independent of the physical body. It presents many gradations from semi-consciousness to profound and death-like trance. However induced, the attending phenomena are similar. The condition of the physical body is that of the deepest sleep. A flame may be applied to it without producing a quiver of the nerves; the most pungent substances have no effect on the nostrils; pins or needles thrust into the most sensitive parts give no pain; surgical operations may be made without sensation. Hearing, tasting, smelling, feeling, as well as seeing, are seemingly independent of the physical organs. The muscular sys tem is either relaxed or rigid; the circulation impeded in cases until the pulse becomes imperceptible; and respiration leaves no stain on a mirror held over the nostrils. In passing into the clairvoyant state the extremities become cold, the brain congested, the vital powers sink, a dreamy unconsciousness steals over the faculties. There is a sensation of sinking or floating. After a time the perceptions become intensified; we cannot say the senses, for they are of the body, which for the time is insensible. The mind sees without physical organs of vision, hears without organs of hearing, and feeling becomes a refined consciousness" which brings it en rapport with some intelligence not its own. "The more death-like the condition of the body, the more lucid the perceptions of spirit or mind, which for the time owes it no fealty." So far as clairvoyance depends on the unfolding of the spirit's perceptions, the extent of that unfolding marks the perfectness of the state, and the nature of that to which the spirit's perceptions are unfolded marks the value of the state. As a mere natural condition the state may be conceived of as the same, whether observed in "the Pythia or Delphic oracles, the vision of St. John, the trance of Mohammed, the epidemic catalepsy of religious revivals, or the illumination of Swedenborg or Davis." In all cases, there may be the same general mode of disclosure; but temperament, education, and character give such bias and color as to deprive the mere natural state of all claim to infallibility in teaching, and commonly of all value. A divine illumination, or any degree of value, can be proved in any particular case of clairvoyance, only by evidences aside from the mere state itself. The tendency of the clairvoyant is to make objective the subjective ideas which he has acquired by education or fixed by character; “if a Christian, to see visions of Christ; if a Moslem, of Mohammed; somewhat as dreams reflect the ideas of wakefulness." Yet there is claimed to be "a profound condition which sets all these aside, in which the mind appears to be divested of all physical trammels, and to come in direct contact with the thought-atmosphere of the world-a condition in which time and space have no existence, and matter becomes transparent.' It may be found difficult to prove or disprove the last assertion, as it is not evident what is intended by the "thought-atmosphere of the world." By whatever name called, this condition of clairvoyance or trance has been observed among many peoples and nations from the earliest times. How near or remote it has been from the prophetic power, or from the epidemic frenzy of religious or fanatical excitement, from mental ecstasy or epilepsy, it is not our province to determine. Theories, opinions, and judgments upon the causes, conditions, and results of clairvoyance are almost as various as the number of those who have studied its phenomena. The Latin author Apuleius, who wrote in the 2d c. A.D., in his Discourse on Magic very clearly refers to the practice of mesmerism or clairvoyance. He says: "And I am further of the opinion that the human mind may be lulled to sleep and so estranged from the body as to become oblivious of the present, being either summoned away from it by the agency of charms, or else enticed by the allurements of sweet odors; and that so all remembrance of what is done in the body having been banished for a time, it may be restored and brought back to its original nature, which no doubt is divine and immortal, and thus, being in a kind of trance, as it were, may presage future events."

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CLALLAM, a co. situated in the n. w. section of Washington, lying along the strait of Juan de Fuca and the Pacific ocean; 1720 sq.m.; pop. '80, 638, besides Indians. The soil is fertile; chief business, agriculture. Co. seat, New Dungeness. In the co. and elsewhere in the region are the remnants of a tribe of Indians known as the Clallams, but calling themselves Nuskliyum. In 1870, they numbered about 600, but were rapidly diminishing. Their language is a dialect of the Selish.

CLAM. See CHAMA.

CLAM, in heraldry, is a term for an escalop or cockleshell, and is supposed to indicate that the bearer has been a crusader, or has made long voyages by sea.

CLAM, BEAR'S PAW, Hippopus maculatus, a bivalve mollusk of the South Seas, of the family tridacnido. The shell is described as "perhaps the most beautiful of bivalves, whether in regard to form, texture, or color." It is therefore a favorite shell for ornamental purposes. It is transversely ovate, ventricose, ribbed, roughened with scaly inequalities, white, and spotted with red or purple.

CLAN (Gael. clann, Manx cloan, meaning "children," i.e., descendants of a common ancestor). This word became incorporated with the English language at least as early as the 17th c., to mean a body of men confederated together by common ancestry or any other tie, and in this sense it is used both by Milton and Dryden. It came to be applied almost exclusively to the several communities of the Scottish highlanders, as

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divided from each other topographically and by distinctive surnames. The word has sometimes been applied to those great Irish septs which at one time were a sort of separate states; but these, with their characteristic forms of internal government, were completely broken down by the power of the English predominance, before the word came into familiar use in the English language. In Scotland it was used in the 16th c. to designate the freebooters of the border as well as the Celtic tribes of the highlands; and there were two characteristics common to both-their predatory habits, and their distribution into communities, each with a common surname. In the act of the Scottish parliament of 1587, for instance, which requires landlords to find security for the conduct of their tenants, it is provided that those "who have their lands lying in far highlands or borders, they making residence themselves in the inlands, and their tenants and inhabitants of their lands being of clans, or dependars on chieftains or the captains of the clans, whom the landlords are noways able to command, but only get their mails (or rents) of them, and no other service or obedience, shall noways be subject to this act but in manner following.' Then follow provisions for enforcing the law directly on the chieftains or captains of those clans residing in territories where the owner of the soil-generally the merely nominal owner, in terms of some useless charter-had no control. It was always the policy of the old law of Scotland to require all the highland clans to have some respectable representative-a man of rank and substance, if possible-who should be security at court for their good conduct. Clans that could find no security were called "broken clans," and their members were outlaws, who might be hunted down like wild beasts. The Macgregors were a celebrated broken C., whom the law pursued for centuries with savage ingenuity. Among other inflictions their name was proscribed, and such members of the C. as endeavored to live by peaceful industry in the lowlands, adopted derivations from it; hence we have the names of Gregor, Gregory, and Gregorson or Grierson. The clans are never treated in the old Scots acts with any respect, or otherwise than as nests of thieves and cutthroats. The following passage in the act of 1581 (c. 112), which virtually authorizes any lowlander, injured by any member of a C., to take vengeance against all or any of his clansmen, contains a picturesque, though, for a legislative enactment, certainly a very highly colored account of the social condition of the highland clans in the 16th century. "The said clans of thieves for the most part are companies of wicked men, coupled in wickedness by occasion of their surnames or near dwellings together, or through keeping society in theft or receipt of theft, not subjected to the ordinar course of justice, nor to ony ane landlord that will make them answerable to the laws, but com. monly dwelling on sundry men's lands against the good-will of their landlords, wherethrough true men oppressed by them can have no remeid at the hands of their masters, but for their defense are oftentimes constrained to seek redress of their skaiths of the hail clan, or such of them as they happen to apprehend. Likewise the hail clan commonly bears feud for the hurt received by any member thereof, whether by execution of laws, or order of justice, or otherwise.' The highland clans are often carelessly spoken of as a feudal institution, but in reality their distinctive character cannot be better understood than by keeping in view some peculiarities which set them in complete contrast with the feudal institutions of Britain. All feudality has a relation to land, from the serf bound to the soil through the free vassal who possesses it, up to the superior or feudal lord, who commands services out of it. The descent to all rights connected with it is hereditary. Among the highlanders, on the other hand, the relation was patriarchal, and had no connection with the land, save as the common dwellingplace of the tribe. It often happened, as the acts above quoted explain, that the head of a C. and the owner, according to feudal law, of the estates occupied by it, were two different persons. Clans did not acknowledge the purely feudal hereditary principle, and would elevate to the chiefship a brother or an uncle, in preference to the son of a deceased chief. It is a curious illustration of this, that in the rebellion of 1715, the notorious lord Lovat, who had just returned from France, being acknowledged by the C. Fraser as their chief, drew them away from the rebel army, to which the proprietor of the Fraser estates had endeavored to attach them, and arrayed them on the government side.

CLAN MACDUFF', LAW OF, was a privilege of immunity for homicide anciently enjoyed by those who could claim kindred with Macduff, earl of Fife, within the ninth degree. Macduff's cross stood on the march or boundary between Fife and Strathearn, above Newburgh; and any homicide possessed of the right of clanship who could reach it, and who gave nine kye (cows) and a colpindash (or young cow), was free of the slaughter committed by him. (Bell's Dictionary.)

CLANDESTINE MARRIAGE. A marriage contracted without the due observance of ecclesiastical ceremonies, even where concealment was not the chief or only object of the parties, is generally called a clandestine marriage. But, in Scotland, a distinction is made between marriages which are clandestine, and those which are simply irregular. All marriages which are not celebrated by a clergyman after proclamation of bans are irregular, and such of these irregular marriages as are entered into before a person professing to act as a religious celebrator, without being a minister of religion, are clandestine, and expose the parties, the celebrator, and witnesses to certain penalties.

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These penalties may be recovered before justices of the peace, on complaint by the fiscal; and the proceeding is not without some advantage to the parties, as the conviction is received as evidence of the marriage. In the eye of the law, clandestine and irregular marriages in Scotland are as valid as those in the face of the church, provided they be of such a kind as to establish the consent of the parties to become man and wife in point of fact. But, notwithstanding the existence of this rule of the civil law, marriages in Scotland, in any other form than in facie ecclesiæ, are practically of very rare occurrence. Persons convicted before a magistrate of an irregular marriage are required to register such marriage, and the magistrate is bound to give notice of the conviction to the registrar; and if the irregular marriage is established in a competent court, the clerk of the court is given notice (17 and 18 Vict. c. 80). To put a stop to Englishmen crossing the border, merely in order to celebrate irregular marriages, it was enacted by 19 and 20 Vict. c. 96, "that after the 31st Dec. 1856, no irregular marriage shall be valid in Scotland, unless one of the parties has lived in Scotland for the 21 days next preceding the marriage, or has his or her usual residence there at the time." It is further enacted, that the parties to such a marriage may apply within three months, jointly, to the sheriff or sheriff-substitute of the county, for a warrant to register it. Upon proof that one of them had lived for 21 days, or usually resided in Scotland, and that they have contracted marriage, the sheriff is to grant a warrant to the registrar of the parish to record the marriage. A certified copy of the entry, signed by the registrar, which he must give for 58., is declared to be evidence of a valid marriage. *CLANDESTINE MORTGAGE, in England, is a second mortgage of lands, already mortgaged for a valuable consideration, the first mortgage being concealed, or not discovered in writing to the second mortgagee. It is provided by 4 and 5 Will. and Mary, c. 16, that in such circumstances the mortgager, or person so mortgaging his lands, shall have no relief, or equity of redemption, against the second mortgagee. See Supp., page 882.

CLAP, ROGER, 1609-91; a native of Devonshire, England; one of the founders of Dorchester, Mass. He held several prominent positions, but is known chiefly by his memoirs of leading men of New England.

CLAP, THOMAS, 1703-67; a minister settled at Windham, Conn., in 1727, and in 1739 elected president of Yale college, holding the chair for 27 years, and doing great service to the institution. Through his efforts a college building and chapel were erected. He published a history of the college, and intended to write a history of Connecticut, but his materials were lost or carried away during the raid upon New Haven by the British under gen. Tryon.

CLAPARÉDE, JEAN LOUIS RENÉ ANTOINE ÉDOUARD, 1832-70; a Swiss naturalist, who studied medicine and natural science at Berlin. He devoted himself especially to the study of echinoderms, infusoria, and rhizopods, in which he was joint laborer with J. Müller, Ehrenberg, and Lachmann, In 1857, he became professor of comparative anatomy in the Geneva academy, and subsequently visited England and the Hebrides. For the benefit of his health, he resided for some time in Naples, where he published an important work on the annelidæ of the gulf. He bequeathed his library to Geneva, his native city.

CLAP-NET, a kind of ground-net much used by the bird-catchers of the s. of England, who supply the London market. It consists of two equal parts or sides, each about twelve yards long, by two yards and a half wide, and each having a slight frame. These are placed parallel to one another, fully four yards apart, and by an ingenious contrivance, the pulling of a string is made to close them upon one another, so as to cover the oblong space between them. Call-birds, either in small cages, or fixed by braces, are placed about the net to decoy wild birds to the spot.

CLAPP, THEODORE, 1792-1866; a native of Massachusetts, graduated at Yale in 1814, studied theology at Andover, and in 1822, became pastor of the first Presbyterian church in New Orleans. In 1834, he became a Unitarian, and organized a church which included a large portion of his Presbyterian charge. He was highly esteemed for his faithfulness to duty in seasons of yellow fever, having labored unceasingly through 20 of these epidemics. His only published work is Autobiographical Sketches and Recollections.

CLAPPERTON, HUGH, one of those British travelers that led the way in exploring the interior of Africa, was b. at Annan, in the co. of Dumfries, Scotland, in 1788. At the age of 17, he went to sea; and being impressed into a man-of-war, he distinguished himself by his services, and was appointed to the rank of lieutenant. In 1817, he returned to England on half-pay. Having become acquainted in Edinburgh with Dr. Oudney, who was about to proceed to Bornu as British consul, the thoughts of C. were directed to Africa; and government appointed him and lieut. Denham to accompany Oudney in an exploring expedition into the interior of that continent. After a short stay at Tripoli, they started in Feb., 1822, for Bornu, where Denham separated from his companions, in order to carry his researches southward. C. proceeded westward, accompanied by Oudney, who died by the way. He still pushed on alone as far as Sakkatu, but not being allowed to proceed further westward, he retraced his steps, and, in company with Denham, returned to England in 1825. The journey had done much for the knowledge

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