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took place formerly where any man abjured the realm by the process of the common law; or entered into religion, that is, went into a monastery, and became there a monk professed; in which cases he was absolutely dead in law, and his next heir should have the estate. Even in the times of popery, the law of England took no cognizance of profession in any foreign country, because the fact could not be tried in our courts; and therefore, since the reformation, this disability is held to be abolished; as also the disability of banishment, consequent upon abjuration, by stat. 21 Jac. I. c. 28." Stephen's Com., vol. i., pp. 142, 143.

CIVIL ESTABLISHMENTS, of the army, comprise certain departments which, though provided for out of the army estimates, are non-military in their organization; such as those connected with the manufacture of munitions of war.

CIVILIAN. This term has three meanings, which are distinct, though intimately related. 1. In a popular sense, it signifies a person whose pursuits are civil; i.e., neither military nor clerical. 2. As a law-term, it means, either a person who is versed in the principles and rules in accordance with which civil rights may be freely, blamelessly, and successfully vindicated in society generally, or in the particular state in which he belongs; or 3. One who has made a special study of these rules and principles as exhibited in the laws and government of Rome (the Roman civil law). The civil law of Rome exercised such influence upon the formation of the municipal systems of almost all the states of modern Europe, that those who devoted themselves to its study were regarded as "civil" or municipal lawyers par excellence. From the more learned training which this study demanded, C. came often to be used as synonymous with professor or doctor, as opposed to practitioner of law; the former being generally more deeply versed in the Roman law than the latter; and this in its turn led to its being loosely applied to the international lawyers of the 17th c. (Grotius, Puffendorf, etc.), who generally belonged to the class of civilians in the sense of Romanists, and who, though their subject was altogether different, quoted largely and derived many analogies from the Roman jurisprudence. At present, from our having in Great Britain no class of persons who prosecute law as a science as opposed to an art, the term C. has reverted to its narrower mediæval sense of student or teacher of the Roman civil law, and thus we speak of Savigny as a C., but not of Story. The special sense in which C. is understood in England will be explained under ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. See also ADMIRALTY COURTS. CIVILIZATION. This is a general term to designate the condition of the more advanced nations, as contrasted with those that are looked upon as barbarians or savages. We term the leading nations of Europe civilized; the Chinese and Tartars less so; the Red Indians, Australians, Esquimaux, least of all. "Whatever be the characteristics of what we call savage life, the contrary of these, or the qualities which society puts on as it throws off these, constitute civilization. Thus, a savage tribe consists of a handful of individuals, wandering or thinly scattered over a vast tract of country; a dense population, therefore, dwelling in fixed habitations, and largely collected together in towns and villages, we term civilized. In savage communities, each person shifts for himself: except in war-and even then very imperfectly-we seldom see any joint operations carried on by the union of many; nor do savages in general, find much pleasure in each other's society. Whenever, therefore, we find human beings acting together for common purposes in large bodies, and enjoying the pleasures of social intercourse, we term them civilized." And so of other characteristics. Dissertations by J. S. Mill, art. "Civilization."

When we come to seek for an exact definition of the term C., we meet with a variety of views, implying that there is a certain complication in the subject. The original derivation of the word points to that polish of manners that distinguishes the inhabitants of cities (Lat. cives) from the rustic population; but the use of the word has greatly outgrown this limitation. Guizot has given a definition, which has become generally known, to the effect that we are to include in C. the improvement of man both socially and in his individual capacity. But the chief difficulty lies in settling what is improvement. That people are far from agreed on this point is evident from the use of the phrase, "vices of civilization." How are we to distinguish its vices from its virtues?

The question is very much simplified by making a distinction between aiming at the improvement of mankind and really effecting that object. All our inventions and discoveries, and all our new arrangements introduced into every department of life, are intended to raise us further and further above the savage condition; nobody denies this; but there may be the widest difference of opinion as to whether any one new device is a real improvement. If we were to restrict the term C. to the changes introduced into human life with a view to improvement, the definition of it would present no difficulty, whereas the relation of this to progress, or actual improvement, must ever remain open to difference of opinion.

Leaving out of view for the present the disputable matter, C. may be explained as follows: In the first place, there are certain things bearing decidedly on human preservation and human happiness that are to be excluded from the definition. C. is not natural advantages-such as those of soil and climate; or the goodness of the mental or bodily constitution of the race; or accidents of fortune favoring our exertions; or individual dexterity or skill that cannot be imparted. It is not necessarily happiness, which

is sometimes present in a low C. and absent in a high. The permanent changes in the condition and arrangements of man's life effected by his own intelligence and exertions make up human civilization. It is the artificial half of the good we enjoy. Nature has given us so much; our own powers of contrivance give the rest. Genius (in the sense of intellectual originality) is the cause, and C. the effect.

Such being the general definition, the enumeration of the separate departments is the enumeration of the institutions of civilized life. These may be briefly summed up under the following heads:

1. The industrial arts, or the devices fallen upon for turning to advantage the material resources and agencies of the globe. Perhaps no one will be found to dispute that these constitute real improvements.

2. The government, or system of political organization. It is here that we are most forcibly convinced of the propriety of distinguishing C. from absolute progress, or the devices intended for improvement from actual improvement. Scarcely anything in the whole political system of Great Britain, for instance, has commanded unanimous approbation first and last; nearly all the changes have been carried against reluctant minorities, and every now and then voices are raised against institutions accounted by the mass of the nation the very bulwark of our national greatness; as, for example, the parliamentary control of the sovereign authority.

One aim of social reformers has been to make the necessary functions of government compatible with a larger and larger range of individual liberty. The majority of men call this state of things not merely an intended but a real improvement; not merely C., but progress. Still, there is never wanting a class of minds that see only the disadvantageous side of this and all other social innovations.

Connected with liberty, we may also notice the growth of human sentiment in all classes, the governing power included. When we revert to the horrible punishments to which men were subjected in this country not many generations since, not only for real crimes, but out of mere superstitious antipathies, as in the burning of witches, we are apt to feel ashamed of our own ancestors, and to congratulate ourselves on having our lot cast in a milder age.

3. The arts of social intercourse, embracing the material machinery of conveyance and communication; and also what may be called the moral machinery, such as forms of procedure for regulating assemblies, and the minor courtesies of life.

4. The scheme of morality established in a community appertains to their civiliza tion. But in this, also, difference of opinion prevails, when we compare different countries and times. Morality, in fact, has always been more or less a part of religion, which must also be viewed as an institution pertaining to civilized men, whether of their own invention or the result of supernatural communication. In any case, there is mixed up with every religion much that is purely human, and which may be judged of by its tendencies to promote human welfare, like any other arrangement of society. This being the subject of all others that men have most differed upon, no criterion of progress can be laid down, because none would be universally received. The unconverted pagans alive at the final establishment of Christianity, naturally believed that the human mind was thrown backward by that event.

5. Science is the least disputed of all the ingredients of civilization.

6. Literature and the fine arts make part of the C. of mankind. They are a new class of pleasures, superadded to the gratifications of mere sense, and of a kind that can be partaken equally by a large number of people. Instead of rivalry and contention, which are inseparable from the struggle for food, money, or power, the arts tend to sociability and good-fellowship. Every contribution to architecture, painting, music, etc., is a result of human genius, and intended for human pleasure; but there is not the same unanimity in this case as in the former; for many kinds of art are objected to as corrupting the mind; and too great a devotion to art, on the whole, is said to endanger the just balance of men's regards to the serious interests of life.

The above enumeration will amply show how to define the term C., and of what parts the total is made up. It has also been made apparent that the point as to whether any invention be an item of genuine progress, is, and ought always to be, an open question. The inventions of original minds intended for placing us further and further from the savage condition, and having that effect, may often be accused of producing new evils, which other arrangements are called for to neutralize. See works on the history of C. by Guizot, Draper, Buckle; on the anthropological side, Lubbock's Origin of C. CIVIL LAW. See LAW.

CIVIL LIST. Down to the period of the restoration in 1660, notwithstanding an attempt at negotiation between James I. and the parliament for the commutation of the hereditary revenues of the crown, the whole expenses of the government of England, civil and military, were included in one list, or rather they were defrayed out of what was called the royal revenue. This revenue arose partly from crown-lands, and partly from other sources, and for a long period after the conquest, it was really at the disposal of the crown. Even after the supplies were provided by parliament, the specific mode of their expenditure continued to be free from parliamentary control. But at the restoration à distinction was made (by statute 12 Charles II.) between the extraordinary

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expenses occasioned by war, and the ordinary cost of the civil establishments of the country. For the latter, the needful funds were provided, partly from such crownlands as were still unalienated, and partly from taxes which parliament voted for the purpose at the commencement of each reign. These were called the hereditary or C. L. revenues. During the reign of William III., the C. L. amounted to £680,000 annually. The branches of expenditure included under this head were the following: 1. The royal household; 2. The privy purse; 3. The royal palaces; 4. The salaries of the chancellor, judges, great officers of state, and ambassadors; 5. The incomes given to the other members of the royal family; 6. The secret-service money, pensions, and other irregular claims. The support of the army and navy was now provided for by an annual vote of the house of commons, and the interest of the national debt was never charged against the civil list. During queen Anne's reign, matters remained nearly on their former footing; but on the accession of George I., the C. L. was raised to £700,000 a year, and on that of George II., to £800,000. George III., notwithstanding that he had surrendered very large portions of the remaining hereditary revenue of England, accepted the last-mentioned sum. But it proved insufficient for the purpose. A large amount of debt was incurred, and in 1769 and 1777, parliament voted sums for his relief, amounting together to more than £1,000,000. In 1777, the C. L. revenue was raised to £900,000, but further deficiencies to the extent of £270,000 had still to be supplied by extraordinary votes. In 1780, Mr. Burke succeeded in abolishing several useless offices, and reducing the expenditure. Notwithstanding these and other efforts in the same direction, it was found indispensable continually to augment the C. L. revenue. In 1804, it was raised to £960,000, and in 1812, to £1,080,000, besides annuities to members of the royal family, which were now paid out of the consolidated fund (q.v.) to the amount of £260,000. When George IV. succeeded to the throne, £255,000 of expenditure was transferred to other funds, and the C. L. was then fixed at £850,000 per annum. The crown enjoyed, in addition, the hereditary revenue of Scotland, amounting to about £110,000, and a separate C. L. was kept up for Ireland of £207,000. Against these large sums, however, were still placed many charges which belonged to the nation rather than the crown; and it was not till the 15th Nov., 1830, that sir Henry Parnell, afterwards lord Congleton, carried a motion for the appointment of a select committee for the purpose of separating the proper expenses of the crown from all other charges. The result of this measure was the act (1 Will. IV. c. 25) for the regulation of the civil list. The sum of £510,000 was now granted to his majesty, and exclusively devoted to the privy purse, the salaries and expenses of the household, secret-service money, and pensions. The separate list for Ireland was discontinued, and the Scotch hereditary revenues and other items were directed to be paid into the exchequer. The change was rather a new distribution, which enabled the country to look more closely into its expenditure, than a real reduction of the civil list.

On the accession of queen Victoria, the C. L., which had long been of the nature of a compact between the monarch and the parliament, and as such beyond the control of parliament during the life of the sovereign, was settled by 1 and 2 Vict. c. 2. The queen surrendered the hereditary revenues of the crown for life, in consideration of a yearly sum of £385,000, to be devoted solely to the support of her majesty's household, and the honor and dignity of the crown. The application of this sum to the particular branches of the queen's privy purse, the salaries and expenses of the household, the royal bounty, alms and special services, is intrusted to the lords of the treasury; and it is provided that if the C. L. charges in any one year shall exceed the total sum of £400,000, an account of the particulars of excess shall be laid before parliament in thirty days. Besides the above sum, £1200 a year is intrusted to her majesty for the payment of pensions, "to persons who have just claims on the royal beneficence, or who, by their personal services to the crown, by the performance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science, and attainments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country."

CIVIL SERVICE is a general name for all the duties rendered to and paid for by the state, other than those relating to naval and military matters. At the head of the British C. S., which numbers above 50,000 officials of all grades, are placed the officers of the royal household, under several departments. Then come the officers of the house of lords and the house of commons. Then a vast number of offices or departments, of which the following are the more important: Treasury, home office, foreign office, colonial office, India office, war office, admiralty, board of trade, post-office, customs, inland revenue (including stamps, taxes, and excise), exchequer and audit office, office of woods and forests, office of works and buildings, duchy of Lancaster, public record office, local government board, education department, civil service commission, registrargeneral's office, stationery office, ecclesiastical commission, charity commission, patent office, emigration office, Trinity house, heralds' college, law and equity courts, ecclesiastical and admiralty courts, prisons department, British museum, science and art department, diplomatic and consular corps. Several departments peculiar to Scotland and Ireland form distinct lists, not included in the above.

The heads of most of the departments are political officers, changing with the ministry. Others, such as the head of the exchequer and audit department, or the commis

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sioners of customs and of inland revenue, are permanent officials. Excluding the judicial offices, and a few departments where special knowledge is required, the C. S. is open to the public generally, the principle of open competition being in force as regards most of the departments.

In former times appointments to the government offices were obtained mostly by favor; but now, merit and abilities are conditions superadded. By an order in council, dated May 21, 1855, the system was first placed on a new basis, and a commission was appointed to examine all candidates for the service. A candidate being nominated, the commissioners in due time notified that he must come up to be examined, and produce certificates of birth, health, and character. The heads of the several departments agree with the commissioners as to the extent and nature of the subjects on which candidates should be examined. The commissioners neither nominate nor appoint; they only examine, and notify the result of the examination.

By an order in council, dated 4th June, 1870, the regulations were altered, the rule of open and unrestricted competition being then introduced, qualified by some exceptions. In certain small and special offices, nomination with subsequent success at an examination remained the rule of entry. But for all the principal departments-the foreign office being the only prominent exception-there is open competition, to which all British subjects of the required age and of good health and character, are admissible. For offices of the superior grade, the age is from 18 to 24, and in the lower division, the age is from 17 to 20. Boy clerks must be over 15 and under 17. Any successful candidate remaining on the list without obtaining an appointment, is struck off at the age of 25. Boy clerks who at 19 fail to obtain appointments as man clerks are also struck off. The first open competition held was on 22d Feb., 1871, when 30 situations in the excise were competed for by a large number of candidates. A further change was made by the introduction of "writers "-a species of uncovenanted" clerks, who were paid by the hour, were dismissible at pleasure, and had no claim to pension. Writers were first introduced in Aug., 1870, and "boy clerks" were sanctioned in July, 1870.

These various changes (tending in the opinion of the service to lower the status of the officers) and the increased cost of living resulted in great agitation throughout the C. S., and in the appointment of a commission under Dr. Lyon Playfair, to reconsider the whole system of C. S. organization and pay. Following on reports from this commission, considerable changes were made. The decision that the lower grade should have no claim to rise above £200 a year, or to obtain promotion into the higher grade, and the introduction of "duty-pay" as a means of rewarding special responsibilities, may be named amongst the chief alterations. The Playfair commission reported against the employment of temporary writers; and that class of employés ceased to be appointed after the issue of the order in council of 12th Feb., 1876, though a small class of temporary "copyists" is still maintained. The granting of pensions to the C. S. is now regulated by acts passed in 1859 and 1871, the latter allowing the commutation of pensions for a slump sum when these have been granted on abolition or reorganization of office. The rate of pension is one sixtieth of pay for each year's service.

The more important departments of the C. S. will be found briefly described under their proper headings in this work. See EXAMINATIONS FOR THE PUBLIC SERVICE.

CIVIL SERVICE ESTIMATES include all expenses of the state not provided for in the army and navy estimates. As an example of these C. S. E., we will quote the amounts voted under their various heads for the financial year beginning April 1, 1884, and ending Mar. 31, 1885:

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*CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, in the United States, was partially introduced in the customs and some other offices in 1877 and the years following, but up to this time (1889) it has made no great progress. The general principles of the system are the same as in England, involving the separation of officials from all absorbing political partisanship, and, in general, the retention of capable and deserving civil officers through suc cessive changes of administration. It involves also the promotion of worthy public servants as vacancies may occur. It lays the foundation for all this in conferring offices, not as reward for partisan services, but on strict competitive examination as to character, capacity, and education. By many it is pronounced both impracticable and undesirable; by others, a fine ideal not likely to be realized; and by others, an indispensable practical reform. See Supp., page 881.

CIVITA CASTELLA'NA, a t. of central Italy, about 30 m. n.e. of Rome. It is a place of 4,000 inhabitants, picturesquely situated on a plateau of volcanic tufa above the Rio Maggiore; has an old cathedral, and a citadel, now used as a prison. It is, however,

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chiefly remarkable on account of the vast number of its Etruscan remains. It occupies the site of the ancient Falerium Vetus, one of the 12 cities of the Etruscan league; and Falerii Novi, of which also there are many remains, stood about 4 m. to the n. of Civita Castellana.

CIVITA DI PEN'NÉ, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Teramo, situated on a commanding hill about 20 m. s. e. of Teramo. It is an ancient place, having, under the name of Pinna, been the chief city of the Vestini; and some remains are still found here. The modern town, though containing some fine edifices, including the cathedral, is in general badly built. C. di P. is noted for its manufactory of silk-flowers. Pop. 4,800.

CIVITANO ́VA, a t. of central Italy, province of Macerata, 12 m. w. of the town of Macerata. Pop., including the port, 8,583. It stands not far from the Adriatic, and has a fine harbor, much frequented. Its lands produce vines, olives, and pasturage. It is an industrial and commercial city.

CIVITA SAN-AN'GELO, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Teramo, situated near the Adriatic, about 25 m. s.e. of Teramo. It has a pop. of 3,000, and an active trade.

CI'VITA VECCHIA, an Italian city in the province of Rome, is situated on the Mediterranean, in lat. 42° 4' n., long. 11° 45' e. Its ancient name was Centum Cella. The harbor of C.V. is one of the best in Italy, and was constructed by the emperor Trajan; the town, indeed, owed its origin entirely to the port of this emperor, and hence it was also known as Portus Trajani. The harbor is formed by two artificial moles projecting. into the sea, while a third constructed between the two serves to protect the harbor from the heavy sea; upon this third and outward mole there is a good light-house, some 80 ft. above the level of the sea. Within the port there is a small dock and arsenal. The town of C. V. is small, and has no buildings of any note except a large church in the principal street. The streets are ill paved and narrow, and the inhabitants poor. Pop. about 10,500. It is a free port, and is regularly visited by steam-packets from Marseilles, Leghorn, Naples, Genoa, Messina, and Malta; while the majority of travelers visiting Rome land here. It is famous among the modern Italians for its oysters, which are extremely small, but delicious to the taste.

CIVITELLA DEL TRON'TO, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Teramo, 10 m. n. of Teramo. It is situated on a rock, is fortified and defended by a strong castle. C. del T. is historically interesting as the place where, in 1053, Robert Guiscard and his Normans gained a complete victory over the forces of pope Leo IX. and the emperor Henry III. of Germany; and also for the siege it sustained in 1557 against the French and papal army under the duke of Guise, who was finally forced to retreat.

CLACKAMAS, a co. in n.w. Oregon, w. of the Cascade mountains, drained by the Clackamas and Willamette rivers, and intersected by the Oregon and California railroad. Seven hundred sq.m.; pop. '80, 9,260. It is heavily timbered and has a fertile soil. The chief productions are agricultural. Co. seat, Clackamas.

CLACKMAN'NAN, the co. t. of Clackmannanshire, in the s. part of the co., on the Devon, near its confluence with the Forth, 9 m. e. of Stirling. It lies on ground rising 190 ft. above the rich carse-land of the plain of the Forth, which is also rich in coal, iron, and limestone. C. was formerly a royal burgh, and is mentioned as such in the acts of parliament of James V. in 1540 and 1543. From a bull of pope Celestine III., dated 1195, it appears that at this early date the church and its chapels, together with 40 acres of land, belonged to the abbey of Cambuskenneth. In 1330, king David Bruce resided at Clackmannan. In 1358-59, king David II. confirmed to sir Robert de Bruce the castle and barony of C., with the lands of Kennet and others; and from that period to the present, the Bruces have been proprietors in this parish. Pop. '81, 1,503.

CLACKMAN'NANSHIRE, the smallest co. of Scotland, bounded n. and w. by Perthshire and the Ochil hills; e. by Perthshire and Fifeshire; s. by the Forth, separating it from Stirlingshire. Its greatest dimensions are 10 by 8 m.; area, 48 sq. miles. Pop. '81, 25,680. It chiefly consists of the valley of the North Devon, gently declining from the green Ochil hills to the Forth. The Ochils consist of trap, especially amygdaloid, claystone, porphyry, and greenstone, and rise in Bencleugh (more properly, Benclach), 2,352 ft., and Dunmyat, or Demyat, 1345. A ridge of high ground, with inferior soil, often resting on clay, runs w. through the middle of C., between the very fertile alluvial lands resting on the coal-measures in the s., and the North Devon valley in the n.. where the soil is loamy, and rests on gravel, and also on the coal-measures, which extend to the base of the Ochils. The chief minerals are ironstone, sandstone, greenstone, coal, limestone, silver, copper, antimony. The chief rivers are the North Devon, rising in the s. of Perthshire, and the Black Devon, rising in the s. w. of Fifeshire; both run w. across C. into the Forth. The river Forth is navigable for vessels of 500 tons up to Alloa, at which port ships of 700 tons register have been built. The chief crops are wheat, barley, and oats. The number of acres in C., under all kinds of crops, bare fallow, and grass, in 1876, was 15,884; under corn crops, 5,840; under green crops, 1535; clover, sanfoin, and grasses in rotation, 3,279; permanent pasture and meadow land, 4,914. The "Hillfoots" have long been celebrated for their woolen manufactures,

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