colors, red, blue, and yellow, or between these and the secondary and tertiary colors, such as green, purple, orange, and brown. The first sort would appear to be very rare, but well-marked cases of it are on record, and show that insensibility to colors is not only compatible with distinct vision in other respects, but is frequently attended by a greater power than is usual of perceiving objects very faintly illuminated. None of these recorded cases, however, have been examined with such care as to warrant the conclusion that the color-blindness was absolute. It would appear that where the colorblindness is nearly absolute, degrees of luminosity supply the place of shades of color in giving variety to the aspects of objects. The second variety of color-blindness, where the nicer shades of the more composite colors are mistaken, would appear to be very common-the rule rather than the exception in the majority of persons, at least of the male sex, in this country; but it is a matter of doubt how far it may not be referable to imperfect cultivation of the sense of color. In many cases of this kind, however, it can be shown that the defect differs in degree only from that of the third form. The third form is the most important variety of the affection. In extreme cases, although colors are occasionally quite correctly named, there is no certainty as to any color: in less severe cases, two colors, at least, as red and green, and generally four, as red, green, olive, and brown, are not distinguished from each other. Yellow would appear to be the color which gives least difficulty to those not absolutely unconscious of color; while blue, if pure and well illuminated, is readily recognized by the color-blind, a few of whom, indeed, describe it as the color which they see best. Red appears to be the color the want of the sense of which may be said to characterize all the color-blind. Indeed, Dr. Wilson thinks color-blindness might properly enough be called anerythric (no-red) vision. He says that while the normal eye analyzes white light into three colored elements, one of which is red, the color-blind eye, on the other hand, analyzes white light into two elements, neither of which is red.

The eyes of persons having this defect of vision have been carefully examined after death without the discovery of any peculiarity. Color blindness therefore has its seat in the sensorium, not in the visual apparatus.

Color-blindness would appear to be very prevalent. Of 1154 persons, of various professions, examined in 1852 and 1853 at Edinburgh by Dr. George Wilson, 65, or Î in 17.7, were color-blind; 21 confounded red with green; 19 confounded brown with green; and 25 confounded blue with green. In consequence of this prevalence of the defect, the investigations into its nature are of the greatest practical importance. Railway officials, for instance, should always be tested for it, lest, being color-blind, they should mistake the various signals in use on lines of rail, and thus cause accidents.

Sir David Brewster, sir John Herschel, prof. Maxwell, and many others, have written on the subject of color-blindness. Perhaps the most ingenious investigator of color-blindness, and the phenomena of vision generally, is prof. Maxwell, whose writings thereon in the Transactions of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, will well repay perusal.

COLOR-GUARD, in the infantry, is a guard of seven corporals and the color-sergeant in each regiment. It is posted on the left of the right center company in the line. COLOR-HEARING. See page 886.

COLORING, as a musical term, is applied to those passages and harmonic progressions in bravura airs affording the singer an opportunity of display. It is also applied to all grand harmonic combinations in orchestral compositions.

COLOR-PRINTING. See POLYCHROME PRINTING.

COLORS, THE DIATONIC SCALE OF. Sir Isaac Newton, when investigating the properties of light, discovered that the lengths of the spaces occupied in the spectrum (q.v.) by the seven so-called primary C., exactly correspond to the lengths of chords that sound the seven notes in the diatonic scale of music. Hence the phrase, the diatonic scale of colors.

COLORS, MILITARY, are certain kinds of flags carried with the army. Standards, banners, pennons, guidons, ensigns, colors-all are military flags, each originally having a distinct meaning, now to some extent departed from. The ensigns were the original of those which are now called C., and which especially belong to infantry regiments. The C. are square flags, larger than the standards carried by the cavalry. In former times, there was one for each company; but now there are generally two for a battalion, constituting "a pair of C.;" one of which is called the royal or first, and the other the regimental or second. Both are about 6 ft. by 6, made of silk, with cords and tassels of crimson and gold, and fixed to a staff about 10 ft. long. The royal color or flag is nearly alike for all the regiments; with a blue ground, an imperial crown, the number of the regiment, and the union cross of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. Patrick. The regimental C. depends for its tint on the facings of the uniform of the regiment; in its center is inscribed the number or designation of the regiment, with its crest and motto, if any; and around are the names of the victories and campaigns in which the corps has served. A subaltern officer carries the colors, and certain non-commissioned officers are set apart as a guard. The C. symbolize the good name and fame of the regiment, and are on that account protected in action with sedulous care; a victor always counts among his achievements the number of C. captured from the enemy. When a regiment obtains new C., they are usually solemnly presented by some lady of distinction.

Colossus.

The presentation is made with much military pomp, and the chaplain of the regiment reads a prayer prepared for the occasion. A member of the heralds' college is "inspector of regimental colors," the post being at present held by garter-king-at-arms.

Besides the "pair of C.," there are small camp C., of the same tint as the facings of the regiment, to designate the part of the camp the corps occupies. Rifle regiments do not carry colors.

COLOR-SERGEANT, in the army, is a non-commissioned officer of higher rank and better pay than the ordinary sergeants. There is one to each company of infantry; and the office is specially given to meritorious soldiers. The color-sergeant wears an honorary badge over the chevrons (q.v.), and receives 28. 5d. per day. He fulfills the ordinary regimental and company duties of sergeant; but in addition to these, he attends the colors in the field, or in the front of a camp, or near headquarters in a garrison. A color-sergeant may be degraded to the rank of sergeant for misbehavior, but only by the decision of a court-martial.

COLOS'SÆ, a populous city of ancient Phrygia, on the river Lycos. Its inhabitants were noted for their skill in dyeing wool. C. was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, 65 A.D. To the Christians of C., Paul addressed one of his epistles.

COLOSSEUM. See AMPHITHEATER.

COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, is proved by external testimony and internal evidence to be a genuine production of the apostle Paul, and as such has been universally acknowledged except by a few modern critics who oppose but cannot overturn the general judgment. From the epistle itself it is plain that Paul wrote it when he was a prisoner; but whether at Rome or Cæsarea has been strenuously debated. While the internal evidence is perhaps evenly balanced for each place, the testimony of tradition is decided that the epistle was written at Rome. If that view be correct, its date is about 62 or 63 A.D. Another question much disputed is whether or not the church at Coloss was founded by the apostle Paul. On the negative side the chief argument is derived from Paul's declaration concerning his anxiety "for the Colossians, Laodiceans, and all who had not seen his face." From this the conclusion is drawn that the Colossians were a part of those who had not seen him. On the affirmative side it is urged: 1. In reply to the preceding argument, that Paul's language, may fairly be interpreted to mean that his anxiety was for the Colossians and Laodiceans who knew him, and for the great multitude in addition who had never seen him. 2. That as it is stated in Acts that Paul went through Phrygia twice, preaching the gospel and revisiting the disciples, it is not probable that he passed by Coloss and Laodicea, two of its important cities. 3. That his friendship for many prominent Christians at Colossæ, the cordial relations which existed between him and the church there, and his intimate acquaintance with their affairs, almost require the supposition that he had introduced the gospel among them. The epistle was probably written to counteract certain false teachings and tendencies which had appeared in the church and were, as Neander thinks, a combination of oriental theosophy and asceticism with Christianity in the effort to obtain a deeper insight into the spiritual world and a nearer approach to purity and intelligence than simple Christianity could yield. Such an effort was especially natural in Phrygia, the land of mystic rites and magical superstitions; and it is remarkable that in the 4th c. the council of Laodicea found it necessary to forbid angel worship, which had held its ground in that region. But in Paul's day the errors were only beginning to spring forth, and he opposed them by showing that in Jesus Christ Christians have all that they require; that he is the image of the invisible God, exalted above the angels, the creator and upholder of all things; that all Christians are complete in him and will be presented by him perfectly holy and unblamable before God if they continue steadfast in the faith; that while the prescriptions of a mere carnal asceticism are not worthy of their regard, there are high principles which should guide their consciences, and important duties which should govern their lives. The epistle so closely resembles that to the Ephesians, in doctrine, style, and manner, that a careful comparison of one with the other will greatly promote a correct knowledge of both.

COLOSSUS, a Greek word of unknown origin, used to denote a statue very greatly beyond the size of life. In English, the adjective colossal is used in a somewhat wider sense, to denote all statues which exceed the size of life, in however small a degree. Most statutes are thus colossal, though of colossi, very few have been erected in modern times. The "Bavaria" (q.v.) at Munich is perhaps the only very celebrated example. The colossal was the peculiar characteristic of Egyptian art, and innumerable colossi were raised in Egypt, mostly of the hardest stone, many of them 50 to 60 ft. in height. The most celebrated is the vocal statue of Memnon (q. v.) in the plain of Thebes, described by Strabo and Pausanias, and supposed to be identical with the more northerly of the two existing colossi on the w. bank of the Nile. But it was in the artistic world of Greece that the most famous colossi appeared: e.g., the bronze statue of Pallas Athene, on the acropolis of Athens, the plume of whose hemlet and the point of whose spear were landmarks to sailors between Sunium and Athens; another statue of the some goddess, of gold and ivory-the so-called Palladium in the parthenon at Athens; and the Olympian Jupiter, of the same material, the masterpiece of Phidias, who was

Columba.

It

also the author of the two statues just mentioned. Amongst the seven wonders of the old world, was reckoned the gigantic C. of Rhodes, representing Phoebus, the national deity of the Rhodians. It is said to have been commenced by Chares, of Lindus, a famous pupil of Lysippus, and terminated by Laches. They formed it of metal, which was cast in separate pieces, a process which lasted for 12 years, and was completed 280 B.C. Its height is doubtful-some making it 90 ft.; others 90 and even 105 cubits. cost 300 talents. Sixty years after its erection, it was thrown down by an earthquake. The Romans imitated the Greeks in the erection of these gigantic structures. The statue of Jupiter upon the capitol, made from the armor of the Samnites, was so large that it could be seen from the Alban hills. Then there was the bronze statue of Apollo, of which what is supposed to be the head is now in the capitol; a bronze statue of Augustus, in the forum; a C. of Nero, executed in marble, of the enormous height of 110 or 120 ft., from which the contiguous amphitheater is believed to have derived the name of "colosseum;" an equestrian statue of Domitian, in the center of the forum; and many others.

COLOSTRUM is the term applied to the first milk yielded after delivery. In differs very materially from ordinary milk, and generally appears as a turbid, yellowish, viscid fluid, similar to soap and water. When examined under the microscope, it is found to contain, in addition to the ordinary milk corpuscles (see MILK), peculiar conglomerations of very minute fat granules, which are hence known as C. corpuscles. The chief chemical difference between C. and milk is, that the former contains nearly three times more salts than the latter. It is probably this excess of salts that usually causes it to exert a purgative effect upon the new-born infant, and thus to remove the meconium (q.v.) which had accumulated in the fetal intestine.

COLQUITT, a co. in s. w. Georgia, on the Withlacoochee river; 600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 2,527-105 colored. The region is level, and the chief productions are agricultural. Co. seat, Moultrie.

COLQUITT, ALFRED HOLT. See page 887.

COLQUHOUN, PATRICK, 1745-1820; a Scotch author, chief magistrate of Glasgow, and for years a police magistrate in London. His works are A Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis; A New System of Education for Laboring People; A Treatise on Indigence; and On the Population, Wealth, Power, and Resources of the British Empire.

COLSTON, EDWARD, 1639-1721; a native of Bristol, England, successful in trade in the West Indies and elsewhere, and the accumulator of a large fortune, much of which he gave to the establishment and support of charities, especially in founding and sustaining almshouses and schools. He was a strong tory and a high churchman, intolerant of dissent and dissenters. He was three years in parliament.

COLT, SAMUEL, 1814-62; b. Hartford, Conn., where his father had a manufactory of silks and woolens. At the age of 16, Samuel ran off to sea and made a voyage to India, in the course of which he made a wooden model (said to be still in existence) of a revolving pistol, the forerunner of the "Colt's revolver." After the voyage, he applied himself to the study of chemistry, and lectured on that science in the United States and Canada. In 1835, he visited Europe and patented his invention in London and in Paris, and on his return secured American patents. In the same year, he founded the Patent Arms company for the manufacture of revolvers only. The scheme did not succeed, the revolver was not appreciated, and in 1842 the company became insolvent; no revolvers were made for five years; and none were to be had when gen. Taylor sent from Mexico for a supply. The government then ordered 1000 to be made, and this commission was the foundation of the inventor's wonderful success. In 1848 he removed to Hartford; in 1855 a large armory was completed; and in 1856 the Colt patent fire-arms company was incorporated. In 1864 the armory was burned at a loss of over $1,200,000. Portions of the present building are leased to various corporations. C. was also the inventor of a submarine battery for harbor defense, and of a method of insulating submarine telegraph cables.

COLTON, CALEB CHARLES, 1780-1832; an English writer, a graduate of Cambridge, and a vicar. In consequence of his passion for gambling, he fled to the United States, but afterwards went to Paris, where he was correspondent for a London journal. He committed suicide through dread of a surgical operation which had become necessary to save his life. His works are Hypocrisy, a Satirical Poem; Napoleon, also a poem; Lines on the Conflagration of Moscow; and Lacon, or Many Things in Few Words. The Lacon enjoyed remarkable popularity. He edited a newspaper in Washington, advocating the election of Clay for president; and published Life and Times of Henry Clay; Public Economy for the United States; The Genius and Mission of Protestant Episcopal Churches in the United States; and edited Clay's speeches.

COLTON, CALVIN, LL. D., 1789-1857; b. Mass.; graduated at Yale, and studied theology at Andover. He was ordained in 1815, and took charge of a Presbyterian church in Batavia, N. Y., but his voice failed, and he left preaching for work as a newspaper correspondent, writing letters from England. On his return he published Four Years in Great Britain. About 1835, he took orders in the Episcopal church, and published Thoughts on the Religious State of the Country, and Reasons for Preferring

Columba.

Episcopacy. He soon returned to secular literary work, and wrote a series of whig arguments called the Junius Papers.

COLTON, WALTER, 1797-1851; b. Vt.; graduate of Yale and Andover, and professor of moral philosophy and belles-lettres at Middletown, Conn. He was for many years a chaplain in the navy, and while in the service he gathered materials for Ship and Shore in Madeira, Lisbon, and the Mediterranean; Visit to Athens and Constantinople; Land and Lee in the Bosporus and Egean; and Notes on France and Italy. He was on the Pacific station at the beginning of the war with Mexico, and in 1846 acted as alcalde of Monterey. He built the first school-house and started the first newspaper in California, and a letter of his to a Philadelphia newspaper made the first public announcement in the United States of the discovery of gold at Sutter's Fort. Some years later he returned to Philadelphia, and published Deck and Port, and Three Years in California.

COLT'S-FOOT. See TUSSILAGO.

COLT'S REVOLVER. See PISTOL, REVOLVER.

COL UBER, a genus of serpents which, as defined by Linnæus, included an extremely miscellaneous assemblage of species, venomous and not venomous, agreeing only in the character of having a double row of plates on the under side of the tail. The venomous species are now excluded, not only from the genus C., but from the family colubrida, of which it is the type. The serpents of this family are very numerous: it includes, indeed, about one half of all the known serpents in the world. Their geographic distribution is very wide, although they chiefly abound in the tropics. Some of them are terrestrial, and some arboreal in their habits, the latter chiefly natives of the tropical parts of Asia and America. A few are inhabitants of fresh waters, and feed on fish. They are active in the pursuit of their prey, some of them feeding chiefly on small birds and quadrupeds, some on insects. They do not kill their prey by constriction, like the boas. Some of them are singularly and brilliantly colored. A few, particularly of the arboreal species, are remarkable for their extremely lengthened form. None of them grow to a very large size. To this family belong the common ringed snake (natrix torquata) of England, the only British species. To the genus C. belong the black snake (q.v.) of America, and the serpent of Esculapius (C. Esculapi), figured by the ancients as an attribute of their god of medicine. It is of a brownish color, and attains the length of 4 or 5 feet. It is found in the center and s. of Europe, is easily tamed, and exhibits the greatest gentleness of manners.

COLUBRI'NA, one of the sub-orders of serpents, distinguished from the viperina by being oviparous, and by a different arrangement of teeth and maxillary bones. The C. includes more than half the known species of snakes.

COLU'GO. See FLYING LEMUR.

COLUM BA, SAINT (called also ST. COLUM-CILLE and ST. COLM), one of the greatest names in the early ecclesiastical history of the British isles, was born (it is believed, at Gartan, in the county of Donegal) in the n. of Ireland, on the 7th of Dec., 521. His father, Fedhlimidh, of the powerful tribe of the Cinel Conaill, was a kinsman of more than one chief or prince then reigning in Ireland and in the w. of Scotland; and his mother, Eithne, was also of royal descent. To this distinguished parentage, no doubt, he owed some measure of his great influence upon the minds of his countrymen.

He studied first at Moville, at the head of Strangford Lough, under St. Finnian, by whom he was ordained a deacon; and afterwards under another St. Finnian, at Clonard, where he was ordained a priest. Among his fellow-disciples, he is supposed to have had St. Comgall, St. Ciaran, and St. Cainnech; and so conspicuous was his youthful devotion, even in that saintly company, that he received the name by which he is perhaps still best known in Ireland-"Colum-cille," or Columba of the Church." In 546, when no more than twenty-five, he founded Derry, and six or seven years afterwards, Durrow, the greatest of all his Irish monasteries. He seems now to have embroiled himself in the civil strifes of his country; and the belief that he instigated the bloody battle of Cooldrevny, in 561, led to his excommunication by an Irish ecclesiastical synod. The justice of the sentence was challenged by ecclesiastics of rank, but it was probably among the causes which determined him to leave Ireland. It was in 563, when in his 42d year, that, accompanied by twelve disciples, he set sail for the little island of Hy or loua, as it was then called-now better known as Iona (q.v.), or I Colum-cille-of which he obtained a grant, as well from the king of the Picts as from his kinsman the king of the Scots. Having planted a monastery herebuilt, it would seem, chiefly of wattles-he set himself to the great work of his life, the conversion of the Pictish tribes beyond the Grampians. The Picts dwelling to the s. of that mountain barrier had been converted by St. Ninian of Whithern, in the 5th c.; and the Scots who peopled the western shores and islands of Scotland, were either Christians before they passed over from Ireland, or were afterwards con verted by Irish missionaries. St. C. now brought the Picts of the n. to the true faith, but, unfortunately, very little is known of the way in which he accomplished his task. Bede miracles, tells how the gates of the Pictish king's fort burst open at his approach, and

how, as he chanted the 45th Psalm, his voice was preternaturally strengthened, so as to be heard like a thunder-peal above the din and clamor by which the Pictish magicians tried to silence his evening prayer under the walls of the Pictish palace. We get another glimpse of his missionary footsteps from the Book of Deer, a Celtic MS. of the 11th or 12th c., lately discovered at Cambridge. It records how “ Colum-cille and Drostan, the son of Čosreg, his disciple, came from Hy, as God had shown them, to Aberdour" (a beautiful little bay among the huge cliffs which fringe the coast of Buchan, as the n.e. district of Aberdeenshire is still called); how “Bede, a Pict, was then high-steward of Buchan, and gave them that town in freedom for evermore;" how they came after that to another town, and it was pleasing to Colum-cille, for that it was full of God's grace; and he asked of the high-steward, Bede, that he would give it to him, but he gave it not; and, behold, a son of his took an illness, and he was all but dead, and the high-steward went to entreat the clerics that they would make prayer for his son, that health might come to him; and he gave in offering to them from Cloch-inTiprat to Cloch-Pette-mic-Garnait; and they made the prayer, and health came to him." In some such way as this, St. C. and his disciples seem to have traversed the Pictish mainland, the Western islands, and the Orkneys, establishing humble monasteries, whose inmates ministered to the religious wants of the people. The parenthouse of Iona exercised supremacy not only over all these monasteries, but over all the monasteries which St. C. had built in Ireland, and over those which were founded by his disciples in the northern provinces of England when they converted the Angles and the Saxons. Thirty-four years appear to have been spent by St. C. in raising up and perfecting his ecclesiastical system in Scotland. But the labor did not so wholly engross him, but that he found time for repeated voyages to Ireland, and for a visit to Glasgow, where St. Kentigern or Mungo was restoring Christianity among the Welsh or British tribes of Cumbria and Strathclyde. The health of St. C. seems to have begun to fail in 593, but his life was prolonged till he reached his 77th year, when he breathed his last as he knelt before the altar of his church in Iona, a little after midnight, between the 8th and 9th of June, 597. He was buried within the precinct of his monastery, and his bones, which were afterwards enshrined-the stone pillow on which he slept, his books, his pastoral staff, and other things which he had loved or used, were long held in great veneration. No composition certainly known to be his has been preserved; but there have been attributed to him three Latin hymns of some merit, a short monastic (or rather heremitical) rule in Celtic, and several Celtic poems, among which is a collection of his prophecies. The strength of St. C.'s character appears to have been in its earnestness. There is no reason to think that he was reputed either wiser or more learned than the better class of the ecclesiastics of his age. But the same enthusiastic temper which won for him in boyhood the name of Columba of the Church," continued to animate him throughout life. The length and frequency of his fasts and vigils are spoken of as nearly incredible. With this asceticism he combined unwearied industry; no hour passed without his allotted duty of prayer, or reading, or transcribing, or other work. As the prevailing austerity of his disposition was often lighted up by gleams of tenderness and kindness, so it appears to have been clouded at times by anger and revenge. "But whatever sort of person he was himself," wrote Bede, in allusion probably to these infirmities, "this we know of him for certain, that he left after him successors eminent for their strict continence, divine love, and exact discipline; men who follow, indeed, doubtful cycles in their computation of the great festival [i.e. Easter], because, in that far out of the world abode of theirs, none had ever communicated to them the synodal decrees relating to the paschal observance, but yet, withal, men diligently observing those works of piety and chastity, and those only, which they were able to learn from the writings of the prophets, evangelists, and apostles.

The ecclesiastical system of St. C. was in so far peculiar that, in the words of Bede, Iona "had always for its ruler a presbyter abbot, to whose jurisdiction both the entire province, and the bishops themselves also, contrary to the usual order of things, must own subjection, after the example of that first teacher of theirs, who was no bishop, but a presbyter and monk." The jurisdiction usually reserved to the episcopate was thus transferred to the abbatial office; little more being left to the bishop than the right of ordination, and a certain measure of precedence in the celebration of divine service. St. C. himself, as well as his followers generally, till the year 716, kept Easter on a different day, and shaved their heads after another fashion, than obtained in other parts of western Christendom. But, with these exceptions, their creed and rites appear to have been substantially the same.

The life of St. C. was written by two of his successors in the abbacy of Iona-Cuimine Ailbe (657-669), and St. Adamnan (679-704). The first of these lives is incorporated in the second, which is altogether one of the most valuable works now extant on the early ecclesiastical history of Scotland and Ireland. It has gone through many editions; the last, and incomparably the best-a book, indeed, beyond praise-being that of William Reeves, D.D., printed at Dublin in 1857, for the Bannatyne club and the Irish archæological and Celtic society, and included in the series of Historians of Scotland, published by Edmonston and Douglas. Besides his Vita Sancti Columbæ, Adamnan wrote De Locis Sanctis, an interesting account of Jerusalem and its neighborhood, from the information of a French bishop, who, in returning from the Holy Land, was driven