lish separate states; and this idea is followed in the colonial system of the British empire at the present day.

The

After the fall of Rome, centuries passed before colonization recommenced; for the various tribes who devastated the empire were not connected with any parent state, and the Normans, who spread themselves over Europe at a later period, were utterly unconnected in the countries where they settled, with the government of the northern states whence they migrated. It is curious that not a trace of the genealogy of the Normans of England or France can be found anterior to their settlement in the latter country, so little connection did they preserve with the country of their ancestors Spanish and Portuguese were the first among modern European states to establish colonies. Their sovereign aimed not only at the restoration of the Roman empire in Europe, but at the creation of a new empire in America, which was looked on as the exclusive property of the Spanish crown. In carrying out this view, it was not so much that the people of the peninsula went to America, and had the necessary staff of civil and military officers sent to them by the parent state, as that great officers, with high rank and enormous salaries, were sent over to the new empire, and brought followers after them. The other governments of Europe-Britain, France, Holland, and the minor statessubsequently colonized in America and Africa, Denmark occupying the inhospitable shore of Greenland.

The earlier British colonies arose in the reverse order to those of Spain-the colonists went first, the dignitaries followed. Both Raleigh and Drake attempted to form settlements in America, but unsuccessfully. The British race there dates from the reign of James I. of England. The settlers were privileged companies, with royal letters-patent, but, in reality, they were independent; and as they were dissenters seeking a place of refuge from what they considered the grievances of the established church and the gov. ernment, they took care not to convey the grievance with them, as they would have done had they been actually incorporated with the British empire. The northern colonists, indeed, acted as if they were a sort of private corporation, occupying their own terri tory according to their own taste, and considered themselves entitled to prohibit_any person differing from their religious and political opinions from entering their boundary. In later times, the example of Rome was more closely followed, and it became the policy of Britain, that any land acquired by her subjects by conquest or occupation, should be deemed to be held by them for the crown. This was strongly exemplified in New Zealand, where a body of energetic and spirited adventurers had projected something like a new empire, of which they were to be masters. Some of them had purchased large territories for a musket, a barrel of powder, or a piece of red cloth, and thought it hard that they should not be entitled to retain the fruit of their fortunate bargains. The crown, however, stepped in, asserted a supreme authority over the colony, and readjusted all its territorial rights, with a view to doing practical justice both to the natives and the settlers. There are many evils incident to any attempts at independent colonization, among which the chief is the cruelty and rapacity which it is the nature of such private adventurers to exercise against aboriginal tribes, and even against any other communities weaker than themselves who happen to fall in their way. The British colonists of the American continent and islands in the 17th c. were robbers and pirates on a large scale, and became memorable in history by the name buccaneers. Colonists themselves, when they rightly appreciate their own interest, must see their advantage in the supremacy of the crown-or rather in that of the British parliament— for the crown is only properly supreme over a territory which has been taken by conquest from another civilized power. The supremacy implies a right to protection, much needed by small collections of men in distant regions; and it may be safely predicted, that had an independent body of British settlers established themselves in New Zealand, their C., when it rose to importance, would have been seized by France, or some other foreign power. After the example set by the United States, it is not likely that the supremacy will be continued after it ceases to be advantageous to both parties.

Many fallacies regarding colonies have been dispersed by the progress of political economy. It used to be thought that the support of colonies at any price was an advantage to our trade, since it is more profitable to trade with our colonies than with foreign countries, because, among other reasons, they can be compelled, by restrictions and monopolies, to take our goods while we take theirs, but other nations cannot, and may continue to sell to us without buying from us. We now know that the best trade for the country is that which the individual dealers in it find to be the best for themselves, and they will go where they can trade with most profit, whether to a C. or a foreign country. It was when the United States were rich and enterprising-not when they were our colonies-that we have driven the greatest trade with them. No doubt, there must always be two parties in trade; and let a nation be as energetic and enlightened as it may, it will have no foreign trade unless there be some other that can afford and is inclined to deal with it. If the population of the United States were displaced by red Indians, there would be a sudden collapse in the trade of Britain. For such a reason it is that we have an interest in seeing our own race-the most enterprising in the worldspread over its face. Every new British C. may be calculated on as a new market for our goods; and as a pecuniary speculation, it may be worth supporting a governor and a staff of officers to take charge of it.

COL'OPHON, an Ionian city of Asia, about 9 m. n. of Ephesus, and near the seacoast. The river Ales, noted for the coolness of its water, flowed past it. It is not often mentioned in history, although the birthplace of several poets, Mimnermus, the elegist, among others, and even claiming to be the native city of Homer. The Greek proverb, "to put the colophon to it," meaning to terminate an affair, is said to have originated in the boast of the famous Colophonian cavalry, that their charge was usually the finishing stroke in battle. Hence, in old printed books, the conclusion, in which were stated the name of the author, and the place and year of printing, was called a colophon.

COL'OPHONY. See ROSIN.

COLOQUIN'TIDA. See COLOCYNTH.

COLOR, in art, means either the pigment employed to produce a certain effect to the eye, or the effect thus produced, i.e., the tint of a picture. In the former sense, it is treated of in this work under the names of the colors themselves. See CARMINE, CHROME, etc. In the latter sense, C. must be regarded by the artist not so much as the result of the application of one or more pigments separately, as of their use in the innumerable combinations of which they admit.

Recent investigation tends to regard as simple or primary colors, red, green, and violet. It is found impossible to resolve red, green, and violet (or blue) light into any other colors; whereas a yellow ray may be resolved into red and green, or compounded by mingling red and green light. But in popular acceptation, as in the scientific works of Brewster and others, the primaries are red, blue and yellow. See SPECTRUM, LIGHT, etc. Compounded in various proportions, either in twos, or all three together, these three colors produce every hue in nature or in art, every tint that is physically possible. First, when combined in twos, they produce the three secondary colors-that is to say, blue and red make purple or violet; yellow and red, orange; blue and yellow, green. The grays and browns, again, are compounds of all three of the primary colors, in unequal and varying proportions.

COMPLEMENTARY COLORS are the colors or color which, with any color or colors mentioned, make up the three primary colors, which constitute white light. Thus, if the given C. be a primitive, its complementary C. is composed of the other two primitive colors; e.g., the complementary color of blue is orange red and yellow. Again,

=

if the given C. be a secondary, its complementary C. is the remaining primitive color Thus, the complementary C. of green-blue and yellow-is red.

CONTRAST OF C. is either simple or compound. Each of the primitive colors forms a simple contrast to the other two. Thus, blue forms a simple contrast to red and to yellow. But if red and yellow be mixed together, the complementary C. to blue will be produced-viz., orange, which is the most powerful contrast that can be made to blue.

HARMONY OF C. consists in the preservation of the same character in a picture throughout, in so far as coloring is concerned. It is said to result from an equal distribution of the three primary colors, either pure or in composition; but such a rule, even if correct, is correct with so wide a latitude as scarcely to admit of practical application. The only method of attaining to a knowledge of harmony of C., is to train the eye by the observation of it as exhibited in nature. A southern sky will be found to harmonize with a southern landscape, and consequently, the colors of which the one is composed with those which compose the other. The experiment may be made by painting an Italian sky over an English landscape, when the want of harmony in the coloring will be at once apparent. The art of preserving harmony without sacrificing variety, resembles that of preserving light in shadow, and combining clearness with depth, which we have explained under CHIAR-OSCURO.

WARM AND COLD COLORS are terms derived from the corresponding sensations which they are supposed to produce. Blue is said to be a cold C., and orange a warm one, whereas red is neither warm nor cold. Without supposing color-blindness, however, it seems very possible to imagine that in this respect the same C. may, from association and other causes, produce different sensations on different persons.

A COLORIST is an artist in whose works success in color is the prominent excellence. The greatest colorists are Titian, Correggio, Paul Veronese, Rubens, and perhaps his pupil Vandyck. To say that these artists surpass Raphael, or even Leonardo da Vinci, in this respect, would probably be to say too much. But that they equal these greater artists in this, and in this respect alone, is a sufficient reason for their being known as colorists par excellence. The art of coloring admits of being transmittted to pupils to a greater extent than the highest branch of all.

COLOR, in optics. See LIGHT, CHROMATICS, SPECTRUM.

COLOR, a rhetorical term, which was adopted into the technical language of English pleading. Previous to the passing of the common law procedure act of 1852 (15 and 16 Vict. c. 76), it was a rule that pleadings in confession and avoidance, as opposed to pleadings by way of traverse, should confess the matter adversely alleged, to the extent at least of admitting some apparent right in the opposite party requiring to be encountered and avoided by the allegation of new matter. This was called giving C. to the

Colorado.

plaintiff's claim. All this curious subtilty, to which English lawyers till recently were in the habit of attaching so much value, was very properly set aside by the statute above referred to. This section which applies to C. is the 64th.

COLOR, in Heraldry. The colors used are generally red, blue, black, green, and purple; which are called gules, azure, sable, vert or sinople, and purpure. Tenne or tawny, and sanguine or blood-color, sometimes occur, but they are not common. Yellow and white, again, are not colors in the heraldic sense, but metals; they are called or and argent, and are always represented by gold and silver. It is a fundamental and invariable rule in blazon, not to put C. upon C., or metal upon metal; thus, if the field be of a metal, the bearing must be of a C., and vice versa. The only exception is said to be the arms of Jerusalem, which were given to Godfrey of Bouillon, which are argent, a cross potence or, between four crosslets of the same. Apparent exceptions to this rule in common blazon are-1. Abatements or marks of cadency or difference, labels, crescents, batons, and the like; and 2. Extremities or adjuncts to animals, or other objects, such as tongues, claws, horns, etc.; but neither of these are regarded as independent bearings. Colors and metals, when engraved, are generally indicated by dots and lines: or, gold, by dots; argent, silver, is left plain; gules, red, is indicated by perpendicular lines from top to bottom; azure, blue, by horizontal lines from side to side; sable, black, by horizontal and perpendicular lines crossing each other; vert, by diagonal lines from right to left; purpure, by diagonal lines from left to right; tenne, by diagonal lines from left to right, crossed by horizontal lines; and sanguine, by lines crossing diagonally from left to right, and from right to left.

acres.

COLORADO, a Pacific highland state and the 25th in order of admission; lat. 37° to 41° n.; long. 102° to 109° w. ; bounded on the n. by Wyoming and Nebraska, on the e. by Nebraska and Kansas, on the s. by the public lands and New Mexico, on the w. by Utah; length from e. to w. 380 m., breadth, 275 m.; area, 103,645 sq.m. or 66,332,800 History. The C. river (the name meaning " red water"), gives the state its name, several tributaries rising within its limits. The region was partially explored in 1806 by lieut. Pike, U. Š. army, and in 1819 by col. Long, from whom the two most prominent peaks received their names. Capt. Bonneville, of the American fur-trading company, followed in 1832, and further exploration was made by Frémont in 1842 and 1844. Before the Mexican war, fur-trading stations had been built on the Arkansas and Platte, but up to the close of the war, Mexico claimed all of what is now A., s. of the 41st parallel and of the Arkansas river. In 1854, colonists from New Mexico founded Conejos in the Rio Grande valley, and a Jesuit mission was soon established there. Settlements by Mexicans followed in the Los Animas valley. In 1858, gold was discovered in the n. part of C., and the towns of Denver, Auraria, Boulder, etc., came into existence. A territorial government was soon applied for; also representation in the Kansas territorial legislature. As a result of the second request the co. of Arapahoe was organized, including all of western Kansas and extending to the top of the Snowy range. În 1859, a large body of thrifty and intelligent emigrants came in; free schools were established, and on Apr. 23, the first newspaper, The Rocky Mountain News, was published. In this same year gold was discovered w. of the Rocky mountains, a stage line was established between the Rocky mountains and the Missouri river, and a state constitution was drafted and submitted to the people. Its rejection led to an attempt to form the territory of Jefferson.

In 1861, Feb. 26, the territory of C., with its present limits, was organized, and divided into 9 cos. From 1864-70 there were wars with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. The Utes, always friendly, ceded the mountain and park regions between 1863 and 1878. In July, 1864, a constitution was framed at Denver, but was rejected. In 1868, and again in 1874-75, movements toward obtaining admission were made. The enabling act was passed by congress, Mar. 3, 1875. In the winter of 1875-76, a constitutional convention met, and a second constitution was framed, which was adopted July 1, 1876, by a vote of 15,430 to 4053. The state was admitted Aug. 1. State officers were chosen Oct. 3, and in Nov., the first legislature, consisting of 47 representatives and 26 senators, met at Denver. C. is sometimes called "the centennial state" in allusion to the year in which it entered the union.

Topography.-C. forms a conspicuous part of the great watershed of the continent, lying as it does, on both sides of the Rocky mountains. Its mean height above the sea is 7000 ft., and its eastern border (its lowest part) varies from 3000 to 3500 ft. The Rocky mountains cover a little more than one half of the surface and are known by various names. The Saguache or Sawatch range, the great divide a continuation of the Sierra Madre, of Mexico, contains among its peaks, mt. Harvard, 14,375 ft. high, mt. Elbert, 14,351 ft., and the impressive mountain of the Holy Cross, 14,176 ft. Connected with this are, in the n., the Park range, with mt. Gray, 14,341 ft. high, mt. Irwin, 14,336 ft., and Long's peak, 14,271 ft. ; and in the s. the Sangre del Cristo range, with Blanca peak, 14,464 ft. high, the loftiest eminence in the state. To the e. lies the Front range, and many detached peaks, such as Evans, 14,330 ft., and Pike's, 14,147 ft; westward are innumerable spurs and broken chains, deviating from the general n.w. to s.e. direction of the greater ranges; among them the Roan mountains, the Elk mountains, and in