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CHAPTER XXV

FOREST OPERATIONS IN THE PUNJAB, 1858-1864 (continued)

THE FUEL SUPPLIES OF SIMLA AND THE PUNJAB PLAINS

D

R. FALCONER'S remarks on the subject of the fuel supplies of Simla and the neighbouring hill stations in this part of the Himalaya in 1853 have been alluded to in a previous chapter. Cleghorn's observations made during a visit to Simla and neighbouring military stations ten years later are of added interest, since at the time he wrote them he had not read Falconer's Report. The origin of Simla has already been detailed (vide p. 282). The year following Cleghorn's visit (1864) the GovernorGeneral, Lord Lawrence, came up to Simla accompanied, for the first time, by the Supreme Council and all the public offices, and the Station became the summer capital from that year onwards. For many years previously to 1864, however, successive Governors-General had resorted to Simla, with more or less regularity, for some weeks during the hot season; but in these earlier years only a small staff of officials accompanied the Governor-General. The first visit of a Governor-General to Simla was that of Lord Amherst, in 1827. After his progress through the North-West, celebrating the triumphant ending of the Bhartpur campaign, Lord Amherst proceeded for the summer months to Simla. This was the foundation of Simla's greatness.

In the years since Falconer's visit the Fuel Supply question had grown increasingly difficult. Cleghorn had the opportunity of discussing the matter with the Deputy Commissioner, Lord William Hay (who had so ably held charge of Simla and the district during the terrible Mutiny days), and several of the old residents of Simla, and had to guide him his experience of the same class of difficulty which had engaged his attention at Ootacamund and elsewhere in the South. The trouble at Simla was aggravated owing to the fact that the summer

capital was encircled by territory belonging to independent Hill Chiefs in which the forests or fuel-cutting areas were situated. There had been little regulation in the fellings carried out and, as Falconer had shown, the waste and destruction before 1853 had been appalling. The position now was worse than ten years before.

Some difficulty was experienced in calculating the requirements of the Simla community. At this period there were 980 houses with an average, it was calculated, of not less than 1800 fires burning daily throughout the year (at that period Simla was nearly empty during the winter). This gave a consumption of not less than 900 maunds per diem. The following calculation was drawn up by Lord William Hay, Cleghorn and representatives of the Hill Chiefs :

MEMO. OF WOOD USED AT SIMLA (1863)

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=900 maunds per diem. It was estimated that each European house burnt daily 2 maunds (160 lbs.) of wood and 6 seers (1 seer 2 lbs.) of charcoal.

=

In the Military Stations of Kasowli, Dugshai, Sabathu and Jotogh the returns of the Commissariat officer in 1860-1 showed that 67,669 maunds of wood and charcoal of the value of Rs.18,045 were used (Kasowli, 18,623 maunds; Dugshai, 29,372; Sabathu, 16,163; and Jotogh, 3511). This amount was exclusive of the consumption in the houses of officers, the bakery and brewery and the amounts used by the Engineer Department. In the same year the Lawrence Asylum, Sonawar, used 8769 maunds of wood and 697 maunds of charcoal. This amount in proportion was far greater than the amounts consumed at Simla and the other stations; but as has been mentioned only small amounts were used at Simla during the winter in those days, whilst only small detachments

remained at the Military Stations during the winter. It was computed that the consumption of fuel during the winter months at Sonawar was double that of the summer ones. It is of interest to remember that the duty of building the Lawrence Asylum for housing and educating the children of European soldiers on service in India, was assigned by Sir Henry Lawrence to a young subaltern, by name Hodson (who had had a University education, unusual in those days, and came into the Army via the Militia). Hodson planned and built the Asylum and was the first Principal. This young officer subsequently became famous as a distinguished leader of Irregular troops, and is known to posterity as Hodson of Hodson's Horse. He was killed in the Indian Mutiny warfare.

The Principal of the Lawrence Asylum at this period, who had the reputation of being an accurate observer, estimated that the amount of fuel used at Sonawar in 1861 corresponded in the aggregate to 600 trees of forty years' growth, and strongly recommended the use of stoves as an economic method of safeguarding the fuel supply. "The economy of fuel," he said, "by using close stoves is one-third, but open stoves save nothing. The economy is effected by regulating the draught by means of a revolving perforated valve in front.' The cost of these stoves was stated to be about Rs.20, the stove used at the Asylum being made by a native artificer there. "The same stove will suffice for warming contiguous rooms, or an upper story, without any additional expenditure for fuel." Cleghorn was greatly impressed with the method of using stoves at Sonawar, and wrote: "I would strongly recommend economy in the use of fuel by employing close stoves and improved kitchen ranges. This has been done with good effect at the Sonawar Military Asylum, and also, I believe, at the Wellington Barracks on the Nilgiri Hills. The surgeon of the Rifle Brigade, Sabathu (Dr. Fraser), is of opinion that the introduction of stoves into military stations would be an improvement.' It is probable that it would effect a considerable saving of fuel, whilst the surface of air warmed by the stoves is much more extensive." He also recommended that supplies of fuel should be stored under cover, especially during the monsoon months, as was done "in well-regulated private houses." The ordinary practice was to dump the material in some convenient spot in the open and leave it exposed to inevitable deterioration from the weather; a habit which

was not only conducive to great waste, but which resulted in the fuel owing to deterioration not affording the amount of heat which would have been produced had it been properly protected.

In addition to fuel much timber was required for building and other purposes. When we picture the size of the Simla of to-day compared with the 980 houses of 1861, the enormous amount of timber which was to be used for this purpose alone can be readily realised. On this subject of building timber Cleghorn writes: "On the road between Simla and Mahasu, the principal forest from which house-building materials and charcoal are derived, I passed in three hours, within six miles of Simla, 41 woodmen carrying deodar posts and planks, 18 laden charcoal burners and six laden lime burners. This may be considered as an indication of the large requirements of the community."

Owing to the fact, previously alluded to, that the forests encircling Simla were in the territories of independent Hill Chiefs, the question of forest conservancy presented many difficult aspects. At this period the chief supplies of wood came from these forests, only a very small amount being obtained from thinnings within the Station of Simla, these latter being sold by auction under the orders of the Municipal Committee.

The species of tree used for the fuel supply of Simla were Quercus incana, Rhododendron arboreum, Pieris ovalifolia, the blue pine and deodar and "some other jungle trees and stout underwood." At Kasauli and Sonawar, Pinus longifolia, which clothed the surrounding hills and split easily, was the chief wood supplied by the fuel contractors. The only forbidden wood was that of Grewia oppositifolia, which emits an offensive smell when burning. The villagers used the withered stems of Euphorbia and thorny bushes to eke out their fuel supplies.

The general cost of firewood was 3 annas per man's load of 60 lbs. The contract rate at all the military stations in 1861 was 300 lbs. per rupee. Charcoal sold at R.1 per maund of 80 lbs.; the best for kitchen use being obtained from Quercus incana. The price of fuel had not increased much since Falconer reported on the subject ten years previously, but it was being brought from greater distances, and it appeared that an increase in price was inevitable. House-building timber had greatly increased in price during the ten years.

Attempts had been made to form plantations with the object of assisting fuel supplies, but only indifferent success had been attained by the few amateurs who had made the experiments; and, says Cleghorn, "the wants of the community are not likely to be supplied to any great extent from this source." The late Rev. Mr. Parker had planted and carefully tended 8000 trees, not more than 400 of which were thriving in 1861 on the Sonawar Hill, chestnuts and walnuts in shady spots being the most promising. Of the 20,000 trees planted near Kotgur by Conductor Mines in 1845 (alluded to by Falconer, vide p. 284), only a small proportion survived in 1861. The failure here, however, was attributed by Cleghorn, who inspected the plantation, to the site chosen, bare grass land, being unsuitable. He considered that, generally speaking, the nature of the soil, and the drought for nine months of the year, appeared to be hindrances to successful planting in these hills; "pine trees, P. longifolia especially, do not grow well in artificial plantations; there are some shady spots in valleys at an elevation of 4000 to 5000 feet, with a northern exposure, and favourably situated as to moisture, where small plantations might be formed of such trees as willow, mulberry, chestnut and walnut; but I concur with the opinions recorded by Mr. Edwards and Mr. Barnes with regard to Simla; and Mr. Batten as to Kunawar, states 'it is difficult in a garden, with every means of watering at hand, to show a good sized P. longifolia tree after ten years of care.' The Rev. Mr. Parker furnishes the following approximate rate of growth for the Pinus longifolia. He writes, I think that trees of the diameter named below have the ages assigned to them or nearly so.

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"I believe that wild P. longifolia trees grow much better on a hill-side (with a north aspect) scantily covered with soil, than in any garden, and they make more wood than is indicated above, but under any circumstances they form a precarious supply."

Cleghorn naturally alludes to the fuel plantations being

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