which supplies of firewood are conveyed to Madras. The renters assume great pretensions, and, if not watched, levy cess on the villagers in the neighbourhood, and on the boats plying in the creeks.

"The least objectionable course, in my opinion, would be to throw the privilege of cutting, and the duty of maintaining, the jungles on those who can perform both at least cost, and are most interested in their preservation, viz. the villagers. No tax should be levied from them but upon the cargo, as I believe was the system formerly.

"The next question is the mode of preservation and improvement, so as to keep up the largest supply on the ground. I think the best arrangement is, to reserve thirty standard trees to the acre, preferring such as are valuable for fruit, leaves, gums, or medicine. Cuttings to be made once every 8 years to be followed by sowings. Whenever salt-water tidal creeks occur, with muddy banks, seeds of the mangrove tribe, common to such localities, should be sown.

"The villagers will probably do this if properly encouraged; the Palmyrah (Borassus flabelliformis) has increased very much by their means; the babul (Acacia Arabica) and punga (Pongamia glabra) grow and germinate freely, and cattle do not touch them. They will undertake the sowing of these with the dirisana (Acacia speciosa), if a word of encouragement is given by the Collector, his assistants, or other Europeans.

"I may mention that, in particular districts, the names of certain civilians are long remembered in connection with the planting of topes and trees. For instance: Mr. Orr, Salem ; Messrs. Sullivan and Thomas, Coimbatore; Mr. Robertson, Bellary; and Mr. Rohde, Guntur.

"For the Striharikota or other small jungles near the seashore, the following simple rules might be observed; and the valuable trees enumerated below should be reserved in all districts:

"I. Trees reserved for the value of their timber.
14. Babul.

I. Sandal.

8. Jack.

2. Red Saunders. 9. Acha maram.

3. Ebony.

4. Satin-wood.

5. Teak.

6. Blackwood.

7. Palmyrah.

10. Marda.

II. Common Terminalia.
12. Glabrous Terminalia.
13. Kadam (Nauclea
cadamba).

15. Sirissa (Acacia speciosa) (Albizzia Leb

bek?) 16. Catechu.

"II. Trees or shrubs reserved for the value of their products.

"The rules are: (1) Avenue trees not to be cut. (2) Trees cherished by villagers not to be cut. (3) Thirty standard trees to the acre to be preserved. (4) The stem not to be cut lower than two feet from the ground, the highest point to which the driftsand will probably reach. (5) A fringe next to the sandy beach to be left untouched. Great care should be taken not to lay bare spots of more than one hundred yards width; and the clearances should be made parallel to the seashore, or the part from which the sand drifts in, and an uninterrupted belt of jungle should be left all round.

These remarks do not apply to uninhabited forests, where there is useful timber, and where there are no local rights to be considered, but to frequented tracts of inferior jungle or brushwood, where there is a constant pressure for fuel.

"Taxing of Timber.-In the Government forests of the West Coast, whilst ryots retain their privileges, the mercantile classes are referred to the depots, and supply themselves at the periodical auctions, and occasionally obtain by permit a specified number of trees marked by the Conservancy Department at a fixed rate, varying from As.8 to R.1-8-0 per tree for house-building.

"In Salem lately, with the concurrence of the Collector, and in accordance with the Bombay rules, R.1 per cart was charged, at the outlet of the Kotapati and other valleys, for wood exported for building purposes. I found, on inquiry at Vaniambadi and Vellore, that the average value of such cart-loads of timber is Rs.5 to 6; the charge, therefore, seems reasonable, and is readily paid. I consider that a similar charge will be necessary for the protection of all Government forests along the line of the railways, more especially as zamindars have increased their imposts on all wood from their forests.

"Palmyrahs. In regard to these, I am of opinion that their preservation and increase should remain in connection with the Abkari department.

"Bamboos.-Bamboos for exportation are allowed to be cut below ghát at a charge of Rs.5 per 1000 for all sizes; and those granted above ghát (independent of those taken for exportation) are divided into four classes, according to size.

"Bamboos are valuable according to their position (vicinity of large towns); sometimes they are of no value, and it would not be just to fix a common rate. In Gumsur and Kimadi, it has been considered desirable to get rid of the bamboo jungles. In Salem and North Arcot they are rapidly becoming scarce within ten miles of the railway, and the question of subsequent management has been under the consideration of the collectors and myself. Bamboos are exported largely from the Shevarai Hills to Trichinopoly and Madura, and the trade is said to be lucrative.

"In conclusion, it will be seen that vast changes take place in a few years, and that it is impossible to lay down absolute rules for general application. The subject of fuel requires close attention, both as regards household requirements, climatic changes and mercantile considerations; and in remodelling the rules of any particular district, the full concurrence of the Collector should be obtained, and due respect be paid to private interests."

The Government of Madras approved generally of the above recommendations and in sending them on to the Board of Revenue to be given effect to the Government remarked: "As population increases and cultivation extends the subject of maintaining the supply of firewood becomes very important. In more advanced countries it is recognised as one of the modes of employing capital for profit, to maintain plantations for the purpose. India has not yet reached that state; but the time is approaching when a commencement of that system will be necessary in the neighbourhood of large towns and extensive factories. The terms on which land may be had for planting are so liberal as to offer no obstacle; but planting for this purpose is novel in this country, and there is the usual backwardness to make a beginning. The Board and the various Collectors may be able to aid in removing this feeling by inducing men of more than usual intelligence and enlightenment to take the lead. This is particularly desirable in the neighbourhood of Madras. The attention of the proprietors

of factories and of the Chief Engineer should be drawn to Dr. Cleghorn's remarks. This important subject should be everywhere attended to."

It thus becomes apparent that Cleghorn's broad views, great energy and tact and the liking with which he was universally regarded, had at length opened the eyes of the Government of the Presidency to the real position of affairs as regards the timber and fuel supply question.

As showing that effect was given to the Conservator's recommendations we find that in June, 1860, Government authorised the levy of a payment of annas 4 per cartload of about 750 pounds for the privilege of cutting firewood in the Government jungles in the district of Trichinopoly. The rate was to be paid by the East India Iron and Steel Company and other parties not belonging to the village communities. The order also applied to the Government jungles in South Arcot, where the Company's lease had expired.

The Conservator wrote an interesting Memorandum on the Godavari timber, upon which the Collector, Mr. G. A. Smith, had reported in August, 1838 (vide p. 77). The great depôt for the Godavari teak in Cleghorn's time was Koringa, where many vesels were built; yet even there it was found more profitable to plank vessels chiefly with teak brought from the opposite coast of Pegu. Either from want of transport or from long custom the wood-cutters about the Godavari cut short almost every log to a length of 18 or 20 feet, and cut away one-half of the thickness of the finest logs, leaving three projecting pieces, which were pierced to serve as dragholes for conveying the timber from the forest or lashing it together in rafts. The Conservator suggested that an excessive duty should be placed upon all timber so treated to put an end to the practice.

The forests in the valley of the Savitri (Sebbery) and the country between it and the Indrawati had been investigated and reported upon by Captain Fenwick in 1850. No large teak were found, and forests of sâl of various dimensions were, says Cleghorn, "almost all that Fenwick reported." In 1856 Mr. Tuke was sent to explore the Savitri River. He reached a forest about 130 miles from the mouth, in which he estimated there were 800 good teak trees in the neighbourhood of Kannirirada. He met trees measuring II and even 15 feet in girth, and from 30 to 45 feet in length, proving that the teak grew to its full size in that country. Mr. Tuke wrote: "much

teak may be found in the Suncham taluk growing in patches," and was informed that the Dorapalle and Gollapalle pargannas were most abundant in teak wood. The Rissildar, in command of the Rajah's Horse there, informed him that large teak was abundant all along the banks, and in the neighbourhood of the Indrawati, but that it had never been cut, owing to the obstructions in the river, which prevented its being brought down.

Mahadeopuram, on the right bank of the Godavari, was the great depôt for Secunderabad; large rafts came down from the Ahiri Forests (Chanda District, Central Provinces, the teak forests of which had been, and still were being, wastefully hacked about) by the Varada and Indrawati Rivers. The timber, 18 feet long by I cubic foot square, was carried to Secunderabad on carts for building purposes. In conclusion, Cleghorn added that detailed information regarding the teak forests in the Godavari Valley was still wanting.

In a note subsequently added to the Memorandum the Conservator wrote that Captain Stoddard, in a letter dated October, 1859, stated that "there is an abundance of the very finest teak growing between the Severi and Indrawati Rivers, which might by European enterprise be brought down to the Severi which he considered quite navigable for boats drawing from 5 to 6 feet from June to November." The Conservator mentions that Lieutenant R. H. Beddome, Assistant Conservator of Forests, had prepared an accurate and useful list of the timber trees which he met with in the Hyderabad portion of the Godavari Forests.

In January, 1859, Cleghorn paid a visit to the Northern Circars, and made his first acquaintance with the sâl forests. He discussed with the Collector, Mr. W. Knox, the question of the sâl forests of Gumsur. The Collector "urged the propriety of some measure being adopted for the due economy and preservation of the forest timber of this district." The attempts hitherto made to extract timber from these forests had not proved a success. In 1851 Mr. G. Williams had entered into a contract to supply railway sleepers, this being the first attempt to work the sâl forests of the Northern Circars. The wood was found to be superior, but the contract failed.

Overseer Harton felled and dispatched sâl wood from Cuttack (in Bengal) to Madras, on account of the gun-carriage factory, and Overseer Weldon was engaged on the same duty