on shares, the landlord furnishing the house and outbuildings, horses, cattle, manure, and seed, and receiving two-thirds of the produce, while the tenant receives the other third for labouring the land, and disposing of the produce. Sometimes they are let on "halves," as it is called, when the landlord furnishes only half the teams, &c., all the manure, and half the seed, when the tenant draws one-half instead of one-third. The whole stock and implements are appraised-at entry, and these or their value must be left by the tenant. A specified rent, however, he considers a more independent and pleasant mode, and states that there need exist no feeling on the subject of improving other people's land, so prevalent in Scotland, for there the growing crops generally extract the whole nourishment afforded by the manure, and leave little for the succeeding crop. In fact, without manuring every crop, even wheat after potatoes, you will have a small return. He mentions his having conversed with many intelligent farmers on the subject, who all agreed that the general average for 50 miles around New York does not exceed 15 bushels of wheat to the acre, and the price being then only 3s. 6d. per bushel, that I may judge how the farmer is to be repaid. He states that the returns from other crops are better, but that none of them can compare to Scotland except Indian corn, which is "par excellence," the crop of America, making up for the deficiency in the others. He prefers the neighbourhood of Philadelphia to any other town in the States, not only from the land being better, but three weeks advance in vegetation over New York, and from the great facility in the transport both by sea and railroad, the markets at New York are glutted with southern vegetables long before the Long Island farmer can bring his into competition, and where the prices, of course, are barely remunerating. As to living

of every description, he says, that it is at least one-half what it is at home. My friend's letter, however, was written prior to 1846, and every thing now is nearly as cheap here as in the United States. In the vicinity of Philadelphia good land sells for about 100 dollars the acre, but at a distance of 20 miles, only the one-half. Market gardening near large towns, such as Philadelphia and New York, is the most profitable department of farming.

Of Indian corn 35 bushels an acre is reckoned an average crop, though 60 are not unfrequent. It is a crop, however, which greatly exhausts the land, and, except in virgin soils, requires to be constantly manured. Though the price be much lower than that of wheat, yet, from its extreme productiveness, the farmer values it as a cheap and palatable food for himself and family, while it is the very best material for fattening animals. From its bulk and inferior value it does not well bear the expense of transportation, excepting when provisions in other countries are very high. It requires two months of intense heat to ripen it, which this country does not afford; and, in fact, it cannot be grown at all in any country where the thermometer for more than one month is not above 70 degrees. All attempts accordingly to introduce it into this country have failed.

The term "farmer," used by Mr Threshie, is not synonymous in the United States with the same word in Britain, where it generally means a tenant, holding of some landlord, paying two-thirds of the produce in rent, tythes, and taxes, of an inferior rank in life to the proprietor of the soil, and generally occupied by persons of inferior manners and education. In America, on the contrary, a farmer is for the most part, a landowner, paying no rent, no tythes, and few taxes, equal in rank to any

other in the State, having a voice in the appointment of his legislators, and a fair chance, if he deserve it, of becoming one himself. In fact, the greater part of the legislators of America are farmers, particularly in the House of Representatives.

CHAPTER XXV.

Taxes in the United States-Evils of direct taxation-Rate of wagesDr Houston-Charles Wilson, Esq.-The canvass-back duck-Alexander Watson, Esq.-His valuable receipt for curing gout-Steamer from New York to Glasgow-Advantages of the Northern passage.

With regard to the revenue or taxes in the United States, they may be divided into two heads, those of the Federal Government and those of the respective States. The revenue of the former, as I stated before, is raised almost entirely by customs or import duties, whilst the revenues of the several States are raised by direct taxation on land, town-lots, houses, stock in trade, furniture, slaves, horses, cattle, carriages, &c.; in short, on all real and personal estate, or, as we say in Scotland, heritable and moveable property. A person, however, is entitled to have all his debts deducted, so that he is only assessable on what remains, under a still further reduction of a small amount exempt by law from execution, which includes the furniture necessary for his family; bed, bedding, chairs, tables, cooking utensils, stools, a few books, &c., and (in the case of a labouring man) to the food also of a cow and pig. The value of the personal property thus exempt may amount to about 150 dollars.

As to stock

in trade, suppose a man's stock amounted to 10,000 dollars, and he satisfied the assessors that he was owing

5000 dollars, or any other sum, this would be deducted, and he would only be assessed on what he is actually worth. The principle of assessment is the same both for towns and counties, and the test is the saleable or actual cash value in the market of any real or personal estate.

With the exceptions above stated, there is no limit to the tax in reference to the small amount of the property to be assessed; but in practice, the tax is seldom levied upon a less value than 40 dollars. A roll is annually made up, open for a month to the inspection of every one; having two columns,-first, the number of acres, if it be a farm, and then its value; then the personal property and its amount; and, to shew the immense wealth now in the United States, I may mention that the value of real and personal estate in one single State-the State of New York amounted, in 1852, to L.200,000,000 sterling.

But what may be called the distinguishing characteristic betwixt American and British taxation is, that in the former, there is no tax on income or profits, as under the property and income-tax act of this country. Property or capital is alone liable to assessment. Whatever be the revenue which a man enjoys, or whatever be the source from which it is derived--the tax takes no note of it, striking only at his property or estate. They consider that profits or income are not a thing that can be called property; if a man dies, they are gone; they are in anticipation of his subsequent year's earnings. If he has already earned the money it is property, but if you speak of his profits, it is a thing in the future, and may terminate to-morrow. The personal property, liable to taxation, is defined to be all that a man has, over and above his just debts, and that measure of property which the law exempts from execution for debt-that is, household furniture to the amount of about 150 dollars, books to the