he was shortly to be there to meet the English embassadors, Wolsey and More. These high dignitaries received him cordially; and no doubt it was owing to this interview that he went later to England, and dedicated his "De Civitate Dei" to King Henry. There is a report, too, that he had been already appointed to a position in Oxford; but of that nothing certain is known. The commentary, when completed, fully sustained Vives' reputation for depth and brilliancy, and deepened the excitement of the politico-religious contest of the day; but his health was exhausted by his continued application. He writes to Erasmus in August, 1522, that he dreads teaching again, although the devotion with which he speaks of his pupils would seem to indicate that it was anything but irksome to him.

His work, "De Institutione Feminae Christiane," dedicated to Queen Catherine of Aragon, and written, as a relaxation, after finishing his Commentary, is principally of a pedagogical character, and treats of the education and demeanor of Christian women, handling the subject decidedly from an ascetic, monastic point of view.

The winter semester of 1522-23 was the last during which he taught at Louvain, as he seems to have made up his mind to try his fortune in England. Previous to his departure, he wrote to Pope Hadrian VI. (Oct. 12, 1522), begging him to exert his vast authority to secure peace to the Christian world, and urging the convocation of a General Council. He recalls to the Pope their former connection at the University, before the humble dean had been appointed to the highest dignity in Christendom, and urges his views with all the frankness of a friend.

In 1523 he undertook a journey to Spain, of which we have no particulars, except that he left the Netherlands in an unhappy frame of mind (letter to Erasmus, May 10, 1523), as he was disappointed in the result of the sale of his works. His way led through England, and whether his reception there induced him to return, or whether he had already received an appointment, is uncertain; but we know, from Anthony Wood's "Athenae Oxoniensis," that, in the fall of that year (1523), he delivered two lectures at Oxford, both of which were honored by the attendance of the King and Queen, and received the degree of D.C.L. For some time, now, he stood in close connection with the English court; probably, although we do not know with certainty, engaged as tutor of Princess Mary. He appears to have passed some portion of each year at his home in Bruges, where most of his productions of this period were composed. He wrote several letters to Henry VIII., on the occasion of the Battle of Pavia, urging him to set an example to the other princes of a peaceful policy; and also to the Bishop of Lincoln, the King's confessor, hoping thus indirectly to work upon him. In 1525 he wrote one of his most important treatises, "De Subven

tione Pauperum," dedicated to the Municipal Council of Bruges, one of the first works on this subject, and which, undoubtedly, formed the basis of the English system of the care of the poor. Our space is too limited to give an analysis of this article; but the point which the author makes is, that although the motives which move us to charity are essentially religious, yet the control and administration of the poor funds is incumbent upon the Christian State, and does not fall within the province of the Church, regarding all interference of the clergy with donations for the poor with a jealous

eye.

In 1526-27 his correspondence with Erasmus appears to have been more frequent, although the tone and manner of the latter show but little of his former warm friendship. In 1528 a most unfortunate turn of affairs took place, which we can best lay before the reader in Vives' own words. It was in relation to the King's divorce from Catherine of Aragon; and it is only necessary to remark that Vives had been an especial protégé of the Queen. He says, in a letter to Vergara: "You must already have heard of the troubles between the King and Queen, as it is now talked of everywhere. I have taken the side of the Queen, whose cause has seemed to me just, and have defended her by word and pen. This offended his Majesty to such a degree that I was imprisoned for six weeks, and only released on condition of never approaching the palace again. I then concluded it safest to return home [to Bruges], and, indeed, the Queen advised me to in a secret letter. Shortly after, Cardinal Campeggio was sent to Britain to judge the cause. The King was very solicitous that the Queen appoint counsel to defend her side before Campeggio and Wolsey. She, therefore, called me to her aid; but I told her plainly that any defence before such a court were useless, and that it would be much better to be condemned unheard than with the appearance of defence. The King sought only to save appearances with his people, that the Queen might not appear to have been unjustly treated; that he had little regard for the rest. At this the Queen was incensed that I did not at once obey her call, instead of following my own good judgment, which is worth more to me than all the princes of the world together. So it has come about that the King regards me as his adversary, and the Queen as disobedient and opinionated, and both of them have withdrawn my pension." This letter was written some three years after the events took place, and he adds that he scarcely knows himself how he has managed to get his living, but that the gifts which God sends in silence are greater than those which we win with applause from men. In 1531 he wrote again to the King, moved, as he says, by his love for England, to which he owes so much, and making use of a different method, since he had failed before to touch the King's conscience, by show

ing how destructive it was to the interests of the kingdom to allow parties to be formed, as they would be, by the uncertainty of the succession, etc.

From this time on, we know but little of Vives. He retired to Bruges, whence he fled with his family during the plague, and visited Paris, where he again lectured for a short time. In 1537'39 he passed some time at Breda, in the court of the widowed Duchess of Nassau, a Spaniard by birth, and formerly a pupil of his; and he speaks of her in his book, "De Christiana Feminae," as a promising girl.

Ever since his return from England, he complained of gout, and, indeed, had struggled against a weak constitution all his life. In spite of his illness, he worked harder than ever, and his best productions date from this period. He had scarcely finished a great work, "De Veritate Fidei Christianae," on which, his biographer says, he devoted more thought than any other, than he succumbed to a complication of diseases, on the sixth day of May, 1540, in the forty-eighth year of his age.

The work of Vives which entitles him to a place among pedagogical reformers, is called "De Disciplinis." It appeared in 1531, with a dedication to the King of Portugal, and is divided into three principal parts. In the Introduction, he justifies the position he assumes in regard to Aristotle. While he reverences Aristotle as a great master, he declared that the world had gained in experience since he wrote, and sees no reason why the minds of that day should not discard his teachings, if not found correct, as he himself set aside the teachings of his predecessors. Vives does not doubt but that later generations will find theories better adapted to their ends than those he himself advances, and greets as a friend the one who shall expose his errors.

The first book treats of the causes of the decline of the sciences. Many of them, he says, are coexistent with the origin of the sciences, others are attributable to moral causes, as, for instance, pride, the desire to shine as the discoverer of some new theory; and he relates, as an example, how a fellow-student in Paris had declared to him that, sooner than not distinguish himself by founding some new doctrine, he would defend one of whose falsity he was convinced.

The historical and material causes of the decay of the sciences is next treated. One of these was the migration of nations, by which the existing order of civilization was annihilated; then, the obscurity of the ancient manuscripts, which is so great, he says, that it takes less time to discover from nature the truths they contain, than to decipher the meaning of the parchment; then, again, the imperfection of the manuscripts themselves. Another cause is the everincreasing use of commentaries, instead of the study of the originals, by which the various opinions of the commentators only lead further

from the original sense; again, he laments the practice of scholastic disputation, "which is taught the pupils before they know what they are disputing about." Other reasons are, that teaching is regarded rather as a trade than a vocation, and that the office of teacher is not sufficiently respected, so that many great minds refuse to undertake a calling which would bring them into contempt, and it is thus left to incompetent and coarser minds to instruct our youth.

The second book treats of the decline of grammar, by which Vives means Philology, the old, comprehensive definition. He inveighs against the purist who would banish every word not found in their model authors, by which means a vast number of words, absolutely indispensable in the sciences, have been discarded. We pass over the remainder of this portion of the work to that which has a more direct bearing upon the art of teaching. The last five books of "De Disciplinis" are entitled "De Tradendis Disciplinis," and open with an especial introduction, in which the author reviews the inner causes of the origin and growth of knowledge. The first book treats of the origin of the Sciences, much in the same train of thought that Bacon pursued. In the second, he gives his views on what should be taught, who should be teacher, and where schools should be erected. He begins with the latter. Schools, he says, should above all other things have a healthy situation, but not so agreeable as to offer greater attractions to the students than their books. It should not be too near commercial or industrial centres, where the noise might be inconvenient, but at the same time should not be too secluded from the world; after a long list of requisites he adds that it should not be thought strange that so much attention be devoted to choosing a place where learning was to be cultivated, when we devote such care to the proper situation even of a beehive. Teachers should not only have the necessary attainments, but they must have the faculty of imparting knowledge. Their morals must be good, and their first care be to do nothing which could give a bad example to their pupils, or, if they have bad habits, they should at least abstain from them before the school. They must be prudent and cautious in rewarding, and especially in punishing. They should be animated by paternal feelings toward their pupils, and be happy to impart instruction without regard to the material advantages which may accrue to them. Above all things, covetousness and ambition should be unknown to them, for what care, he says, can scholars hope, from a man who hopes to make either fortune or reputation out of them. All opportunities of making money should be banished from the schools, and the State should fix such salaries as would be sufficient for an honest man without being an inducement to such as had no call for the profession. Every opportunity for display should be avoided, therefore he recommends the limiting of the public dis

putations, as the applause is seldom bestowed on those who defend the truth. He would also control the conferring of academic grades. On placing the boy at school-this refers especially to younger pupils the parent should impress upon his son that he is not to study in order to be able to lead a life of idleness. He must understand that the aim of his education is to make him a wiser and a better man. The boy should remain one or two years in the school in order that his capabilities may be developed,-four times a year the teachers should hold a private conference, and assign to the scholars such branches as they may be most fitted to pursue. Those who appear to have no taste for study should not be allowed to proceed, as it would be a loss of time, and they would only be further disgraced by their failure. But above all, the teacher should be conscious of the dignity of their calling, and live worthy of it. It is often asked, says Vives, whether boys are better brought up at or away from home. If academies like the one he describes existed, he is of the opinion they should be sent there, and from their earliest childhood; but as they exist, it is a difficult question to answer. Children, he says, are like apes (sunt pueri naturaliter simii), and imitate that which they see in their elders, and thus their character is often ruined by those who should form it and better it. Parents, he says, are clearly held responsible for their children on the authority of Holy Writ and the teachings of the Holy Fathers, --what care, then, should they not exercise in regard to the influences exerted in their families. He regards education in the family as better in many respects than sending youth to the universities, where, it is well known, instruction was given to boys of all ages. The care the children receive is better, and the parental authority better sustained by its continual exercise. The piety of the parents is an example to the children. If the children are by nature bad, and require to be governed by fear, that inspired by the position of the parent is best calculated to rule them; if they are to be led by love, surely none is greater than that which exists between members of the same family.

Vives then urges again the establishment in each city of a gymnasium (ludus literarius), and gives directions for organizing and directing it, particularly for ascertaining the mental capacities and characteristics of the pupils, previous to classifying them and assigning tasks. He calls attention to the necessity of assigning to each one that which nature manifestly intended him to do. Those who at first sight do not appear to have any particular tastes, should not be turned away until after efforts have been made to test their capacities; but if after that nothing can be made of them, it were better that they devote themselves to some branch of industry.

Last of all, Vives treats of the method, in which he clearly advises the inductive. Studies should be so arranged that one branch