WREN

against the French, by whom he was defeated at Hanau. He was, however, victorious in several battles in France in 1814, and was made fieldmarshal and prince. He represented Bavaria at the Vienna Congress (1814). [Vrai'-deh.]

Wren, SIR CHRISTOPHER, architect, born at East Knoyle in Wiltshire, 20th October 1632, was the son of Dr Christopher Wren, Dean of Windsor, and the nephew of Dr Matthew Wren (1585-1667), the High Church bishop successively of Hereford, Norwich, and Ely. He passed from Westminster to Wadham College, Oxford, became a fellow of All Souls, distinguished himself in mathematics and physics, and helped to perfect the barometer. In 1657 he became Gresham professor of Astronomy in London, but in 1661 returned to Oxford as Savilian professor of Astronomy. Before leaving London, Wren had, with Boyle, Wilkins, and others, laid the foundation of the Royal Society. In 1663 he was engaged by the Dean and Chapter of St Paul's to make a survey of the cathedral, with a view to repairs. The first work built from a design by Wren was the chapel at Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1663; and in 1663-66 he designed the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford and the Library, &c., of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1665 Wren visited Paris. The great fire of London (1666) opened a wide field for his genius. He drew designs for the rebuilding of the whole city, embracing wide streets and magnificent quays. He was chosen architect for the new St Paul's (1675-1710), on the model of St Peter's at Rome; and he designed more than fifty other churches in place of those destroyed by the fire. Other designs of his were the Royal Exchange, Custom-house, Temple Bar, the College of Physicians, Greenwich Observatory, Chelsea Hospital, the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Hampton Court, Greenwich Hospital, Buckingham House, Marlborough House, and the western towers and north transept of Westminster Abbey. In 1672 Wren was knighted, and in 1680 he was made President of the Royal Society, in 1684 comptroller of the works at Windsor Castle, and in 1698 surveyor-general of Westminster Abbey. He was returned for Windsor in 1689, but unseated on petition. Wren died 25th Feb. 1723, and was buried in St Paul's. See Lives by Elmes (1852), Miss Phillimore (1881), and Stratton (1897); and Loftie's Inigo Jones and Wren (1893).

wright, FANNY (1795-1853), abolitionist, born at Dundee, travelled in America 1818-20, settled there 1825, and married unhappily in 1838 a M. d'Arusmont. See Life by Gilbert (1855).

Wright, JOSEPH (1734-97), painter, called 'Wright of Derby,' passed his whole life in his native town, except three and a half years in London (1751-54), two in Italy (1773-75), and two at Bath (1775-77). He first exhibited in London in 1765; and was elected A. R. A. in 1781, R. A. in 1784-this latter honour he declined. His paintings are largely portraits or portrait groups, representing not seldom effects of artificial light, as in his Orrery' (1766) and ‘Air-pump' (1768). See the folio on him by Bemrose (1886).

Wright, THOMAS (1810-77), antiquary, born of Quaker parentage near Ludlow, graduated from Trinity, Cambridge, and in 1836 commenced the career of a man of letters in London. He was elected F.S.A. in 1837, and helped to found the Camden Society, Archæological Association, and Percy and Shakespeare Societies. From 1836 he published eighty-four works, including Biographia Britannica Literaria (1842-46); England in the Middle Ages (1846); England under the House of

WYATT

Hanover from Caricatures (1848); Sorcery and Magic (1851); The Celt, Roman, and Saxon (1852); Wanderings of an Antiquary (1854); Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English (1857); Political Porms 1327-1485 (1859-61); Archæological Essays (1861); Domestic Manners in Medieval England (1861); Caricature and Grotesque (1865); Womankind in Western Europe (1869); Uriconium (1872); and Anglo-Latin Twelfth Century Satirical Poets (1877).

Wright, THOMAS BARBER (1788-1875), 'the Manchester prison philanthropist,' was a foundry. worker and foreman, but did so much good in jails that a public subscription (1852) enabled him to devote himself wholly to this work.

Wright, WILLIAM ALDIS, LL.D., D.C.L., born in 1836 at Beccles, became librarian, and in 1888 vice-master, of Trinity College, Cambridge. He has edited the Cambridge and Globe Shakespeares (with W. G. Clark), Generydes, Robert of Glouces ter, Edward FitzGerald's Letters, &c., and is well known by his Bible Word-Book (1866).

Wulstan, or WULFSTAN, (1) a monk of Winchester in the 10th century, author of a Life of Bishop Ethelwold and a poem on St Swithin's Miracles. (2) An Archbishop of York in 1003, author of Anglo-Saxou homilies (see Napier's German monograph, 1882).—(3) A Bishop of Worcester and saint (1007-95), by some reputed the author of part of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. His Life was written by William of Malmesbury.

Wundt, WILHELM MAX, born 16th August 1832 at Neckarau in Baden, in 1875 became professor of Physiology at Leipzig. He is distinguished in the field of experimental psychology, and has written on the nerves and the senses, the relations of physi ology and psychology, logic, &c. His Human and Animal Psychology and Outlines of Psychology were translated in 1896. [Voont.]

Wurtz, CHARLES ADOLPHE (1817-84), French chemist, born at Strasburg, wrote numerous works, of which The Atomic Theory (1880), Modern Chemistry (4th ed. 1885), &c. have been translated. See Life by Gautier (1884). [Veertz.]

Wuttke, HEINRICH (1818-76), historian, born at Brieg, became professor at Leipzig in 1848, and as a politician was bitterly hostile to Prussia. Besides books on the history of Silesia (1842-43 and 1847), the three years of war 1756-58 (1856), Poland and Germany (1847), and the battle of Leipzig (1863), he began a great history of writing (vol. i. 1872). [Voot'-keh.]

Wuttke, KARL FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1819-70), a conservative theologian, born at Breslau, became professor extra-ordinary at Berlin in 1854, ordinary at Halle in 1861. His chief works are Christian Ethics (1860-62; trans. 1873), Die Geschichte des Heidenthums (1852-53), and Der Deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart (1865).

Wyatt, JAMES, R.A. (1746-1813), architect, born in Staffordshire, succeeded Sir W. Chambers in 1796 as surveyor to the Board of Works. He built Fonthill Abbey for Beckford, and was killed by a carriage accident.-His son, MATTHEW COTES WYATT (1777-1862), was a sculptor.

Wyatt, SIR MATHEW DIGBY (1820-77), architect, was born at Rowde near Devizes, the son of a London police-magistrate, a member of a family that produced many architects and sculptors. He was secretary to the Royal Commissioners for the 1851 Exhibition, and in 1869 was knighted and made Slade professor of Fine Arts at Cambridge. He wrote Metal Work and its Artistic Design (1852), Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century (1853), Art

WYATT

Treasures of the United Kingdom (1857), Fine Art (1870), and Architect's Handbook in Spain (1872).

Wyatt, RICHARD (1795-1850), classical and poetical sculptor, born in London, studied at Paris and Rome, where he died.

Wyatt, SIR THOMAS, Courtier and poet, was born in 1503 at Allington Castle in Kent, son of Sir Henry Wyatt, and studied at St John's College, Cambridge. He was warmly received at court, in 1536 knighted, and in 1537 made high sheriff of Kent. He contrived to retain the king's favour, and was employed on missions to Spain and the imperial court. In 1541 he got a grant of lands at Lambeth, and in 1542 was named high steward of the king's manor at Maidstone. He died 11th Oct. 1542. In 1557 his poems, with Surrey's, were published in Tottel's Miscellany (ed. by Arber, 1870). Some of the shorter pieces are models of grace, and the satires possess merit. His poems and Surrey's were edited by Dr Nott (1815-16), and there is an American edition (1889), whose editor, Prof. Simonds, seeks to show that Anne Boleyn was the object of Wyatt's love. See also a monograph by Alscher (Vienna, 1886).— His son, SIR THOMAS WYATT, the Younger, born about 1520, fought bravely at the siege of Landrecies (1544), and continued in service on the Continent till 1550. In 1554, with Lady Jane Grey's father, he led the Kentish men to Southwark; and failing to capture Ludgate, was taken prisoner, and executed, 11th April 1554.

Wycherley, WILLIAM, born at Clive near Shrewsbury about 1640, in early youth was sent to France, left Queen's College, Oxford, without a degree, and entered the Middle Temple. For some years he lived as a man about town and a courtier, but took early to work as a dramatist. Love in a Wood, or St James's Park, a brisk comedy founded on Sedley's Mulberry Garden, was acted with much applause in 1672. Buckinghain gave him a commission in a regiment, and King Charles made him a present of £500. He served for a short time in the fleet, and was present at a sea-fight-probably one of the drawn battles fought between Rupert and De Ruyter in 1673. The Gentleman Dancing-master (1673) was a clever farcical comedy of intrigue. The Country Wife (1675), Wycherley's coarsest but strongest play, partly founded on Molière's École des Femmes, was followed in 1677 by The Plain Dealer, founded partly on Molière's Misanthrope. A little after 1679 Wycherley married the young widowed Countess of Drogheda, with whom he lived unhappily. At her death a few years after she left him all her fortune, a bequest which involved him in a law-suit whereby he was reduced to poverty and cast into the Fleet prison for some years. At last James II., having seen a representation of The Plain Dealer, paid his debts and gave him a pension of £200 a year. At sixty-four Wycherley made the acquaintance of Pope, then a youth of sixteen, to whom he entrusted the revision of a number of his verses, the result being a quarrel. Wycherley's money troubles continued to the end of his days. At seventy-five he married a young woman in order to balk the hopes of his nephew; and he died eleven days after his marriage, in Dec. 1715according to Pope, in the Roman Catholic faith. In literary brilliance Congreve infinitely outshines him, but Wycherley is a far more dexterous playwright; The Country Wife, purged of its nasti ness, has proved one of the best acting plays ever set on the stage. See Leigh Hunt's edition of The Works of Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and

WYCLIFFE

Farquhar (1840; new ed. 1865); Hazlitt's English Comic Writers (1819; new ed. 1869); and Ward's Dramatic Literature (1875). [Witch'er-ley.]

Wycliffe, JOHN (also spelt Wyclif, Wiclif, Wickliffe, &c.), is believed to have sprung from a family which held the manor of Wycliffe on Tees, and to have been born at Hipswell near Richmond in Yorkshire about 1325. He distinguished himself at Oxford, where he was a popular teacher. In 1360 he was master of Balliol College, but resigned soon afterwards on taking the college living of Fillingham, which he exchanged in 1368 for Ludgershall, Buckinghamshire. Warden meanwhile for a short time of Canterbury Hall, he also held some office at court, where he was consulted by government and em ployed as a pamphleteer. In 1374 he became rector of Lutterworth, and the same year was sent (doubtless as a recognised opponent of papal intrusion) to Bruges to treat with ambassadors from the pope concerning ecclesiastical abuses. His strenuous activity gained him support among the nobles and the London citizens. But his maintenance of a right in the secular power to control the clergy was offensive to the bishops, who summoned him before the archbishop in St Paul's in 1377; but the council was broken up by an unseemly quarrel between the Bishop of London and the Duke of Lancaster. The pope now addressed bulls to the king, bishops, and University of Oxford, bidding them to imprison Wycliffe and make him answer before the archbishop and the pope. When at last proceedings were undertaken, the prosecution had little effect upon Wycliffe's position. The whole fabric of the church was now (1378) shaken by the election of an antipope. Hitherto Wycliffe had attacked the manifest abuses in the church, but now he began to strike at its constitution, and declared it would be better without pope or prelates. He denied the priestly power of absolution, and the whole system of enforced confession, of penances, and indulgence. Up to this time his works had been written in Latin; he now appealed to the people in their own language, and by issuing popular tracts became the first English prose writer. He organised a body of itinerant preachers, his 'poor priests,' who spread his doctrines widely through the country, and began his translation of the Bible, of which as yet there was no complete English version. The work was carried through rapidly, and widely circulated. He entered upon more dangerous ground when in 1380 he assailed the central dogma of transubstantiation. A convocation of doctors at Oxford condemned his theses; he appealed without success to the king. In 1382 Archbishop Courtenay convoked a council and condemned Wycliffite opinions. Wycliffe's followers were arrested, and all compelled to recant; but for some unknown reason he himself was not judged. He withdrew from Oxford to Lutterworth, where he continued his incessant literary activity. His work in the next two years, uncompromising in tone, is astonishing in quantity, and shows no falling off in power. He died 31st Dec. 1384. The characteristic of his teaching was its insistence on inward religion in opposition to the formalism of the time; as a rule he attacked the established practices of the church only so far as he thought they had degenerated into mere mechanical uses. The influence of his teaching was widespread in England, and, though persecution suppressed it, continued to work up to the Reformation. Huss (q.v.) was avowedly his disciple; and there were 'Lollards' or Wycliffites in Ayrshire down to the Reformation.

WYKEHAM

Thirty years after Wycliffe's death forty-five articles extracted from his writings were con demned as heretical by the Council of Constance, which ordered his bones to be dug up and burned and cast into the Swift-a sentence executed in 1428. See Wycliffe's Bible (two versions in parallel columns, 1850); Select English works (1869-71); English works hitherto unprinted (1880); Latin works (Wyclif Soc. 1882-95, including the Opus Evangelicum, ed. Loserth, 1895); Lives by Lewis (1723) and Vaughan (1828); John Wycliffe and his English Precursors, by Lechler (trans. 1884); R. L. Poole's Wycliffe (1889); Loserth's Wyclif and Hus (1884); and L. Sergeant's study (1892).

Wykeham, WILLIAM DE (1324-1404), born at Wickham near Fareham, was sent to the Prior's school at Winchester, and by Edward III. appointed surveyor of Windsor and other royal castles in 1359. He built Queensborough Castle in 1861, was Keeper of the Privy-seal and secretary to the king in 1364, and in 1367 became Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of England. In 1380 he founded New College, Oxford, and in 138793 Winchester School. Next year he undertook the transformation of the nave of Winchester Cathedral, and personally supervised the work. The money he laid out on building would now represent half a million. In 1404 he finished his magnificent chantry at Winchester, and, dying the same year, was buried in it. Wykeham was not an ardent theologian, but he was generous and religious-he founded his colleges first for the glory of God and the promotion of divine service, and secondarily for scholarship.' In politics he was national as opposed to papal. He has been called the father of the public-school system;' and he established (though he did not invent) the Perpendicular architecture. See Lives by Lowth (new ed. 1777), Chandler (1842), Moberly (1887), and Champneys (Art Journal, 1888); and Winchester College 1393-1893 by old Wykehamists (1894).

Wylie, JAMES AITKEN (1805-90), a Scottish divine, wrote The Papacy (1851), a History of Protestantism (1878), and a score of other works.

Wynants, or WIJNANTS, JAN (c. 1620-79), Amsterdam landscape-painter, was born at Haarlem. Wyndham, CHARLES, comedian, born in 1841,

ANTHIPPE. See SOCRATES.

Xavier, FRANCISCO, the Apostle of the Indies,' was born at his mother's castle of Xavero or Xavier near Sanguesa, in the Basque country, April 7, 1506, the youngest son of Juan de Jasso, privy-councillor to the king of Navarre. At Paris, where he studied and then lectured, he was associated with Loyola (q.v.) in founding the Jesuit Society (1534). Ordained priest in 1537, he lived at Rome in the service of the society, and by John III. of Portugal was sent out as missionary to the Portuguese colonies in the East. He arrived at Goa in 1542, and laboured with equal zeal and success among the corrupt Europeans and the native population. After a year he visited Travancore, where in a month he baptised 10,000 natives. He then visited Malacca, the Banda Islands, Amboyna, the Moluccas, and Ceylon, where he converted the king of Kandy with many of his people. The mission he next founded in Japan (1548) flourished for a hundred years. He returned to Goa in 1552 to

and bred for a doctor, first appeared on the stage at New York in 1861, and made his debut in London in 1866. Charles Surface' and 'David Garrick' are among his parts.

Wynkyn de Worde. See WORDE.

Wynn, CHARLOTTE WILLIAMS (1807-60), daughter of the Right Hon. Charles Watkyn Williams Wynn, M.P., D.C.L. (1775-1850), who held office in various governments 1822-35, was the friend of Southey, Hallam, Mackintosh, Bunsen, Maurice, and Carlyle. See her interesting Letters (1878)

Wyntoun, ANDREW OF, an old rhyming Scottish chronicler, was a canon regular of St Andrews, who about 1395 became prior of the monastery of St Serf on Lochleven, and wrote The Orygynale Cromykil of Scotland, specially valuable as a specimen of old Scotch. It is brought down to 1406, and of its nine books the first five give a fragmentary outline of the history and geography of the ancient world. A complete edition was published by David Laing (1872-79).

Wyon, WILLIAM, R.A. (1795-1851), born at Birmingham, the son of a die-sinker of German descent, was famous as a medallist and chief engraver to the Mint. See Memoir by N. Carlisle (1837). His cousin, BENJAMIN WYON (1802-58), was also a seal-engraver and medallist, as was his son, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1836-73). Others of the family have been eminent in cognate arts.

Wyss, JOHANN RUDOLF (1781-1830), author of The Swiss Family Robinson, was professor of Philosophy at Bern from 1806. His lectures on the supreme good (1811) and Swiss tales (1815-30) would hardly have preserved his name; but Der Schweizerische Robinson (1812-13) has been frequently translated-into English in 1820. [less] Wyther, GEORGE. See WITHER.

Wyttenbach, DANIEL (1746-1820), born at Bern, became professor of Greek at Amsterdam in 1771, of Philosophy in 1779, and in 1799 of Rhetoric. He retired in 1816. He edited Plutarch's Moralia (1795-1830), and wrote on logic, a Life of Ruhnken, &c. See Latin Life by Mahne (1823).-His wife, JOHANNA GALLIEN (d. 1830), whom he married at seventy-two, lived after his death at Paris, was given the doctorate of philosophy by Marburg in 1827, and wrote Théagène (1815), Das Gastmahl des Leontis (1821), and Alexis (1823).

XENOPHANES

Xenophanes (fl. 540-500 B.C.), founder of the Eleatic School of philosophy, emigrated from Colophon to Elea in southern Italy about 536 B.C. He held that a supreme intelligence or deity was identical with the world. [Zen-of'an-eez.]

Xenophon (c. 435-354 B.C.), Greek historian, essayist, and military commander, the son of Gryllus, an Athenian knight, came under Socrates's influence during the thirty-five years he spent at Athens. In 401 he accepted the invitation of Proxenus of Boeotia, a commander of Greek mercenaries, to join him at Sardis and take service under the Persian prince, Cyrus, ostensibly against the Pisidians, but really against Cyrus's own brother, King Artaxerxes Mnemon. After the failure of this bold scheme, and the death of the rebel prince at Cunaxa (401), Xenophon succeeded Proxenus in the command of the Ten Thousand Greeks. He became the life and soul of the army in its march of 1500 miles, as they fought their way against the ferocious mountain tribes through the highlands of Armenia and the ice and snow of an inclement winter; and with such skill did he lead them that in five months they reached Trapezus (Trebizond), a Greek colony on the Black Sea, and ultimately Chrysopolis (Scutari), opposite Byzantium (399). After serving awhile under a Thracian chief, he got his soldiers permanent service in the Lacedæmonian army engaged to fight against the Persians. Sentence of banishment from Athens for thus taking service with Sparta was passed against him. Forming in 396 the closest friendship with the Spartan king, Agesilaus, he accompanied him in his eastern campaign; was in his suite when he returned to Greece to conduct the war against the anti-Spartan league of Athens, Corinth, and Thebes (394); and witnessed the battle of Coronea. He went back with the king to Sparta, where he resided on and off until the Spartans presented him with an estate at Scillus, a town taken from Elis. Hither in 387 he went with his wife Philesia and his two sons, Gryllus and Diodorus; and here he spent some twenty years of his life, indulging his taste for literary work and the pursuits of a country gentleman. But the break-up of Spartan ascendency after the battle of Leuctra (371) drove him from his retreat. The Athenians, who had now joined the Spartans against Thebes, repealed the sentence of banishment against him. But he settled and died at Corinth. His writings give us the idea of having been written with great singleness of purpose, modesty, and love of truth. They may be distributed into four groups: (1) Historical-the Hellenics (the history of Greece for forty-nine years), Anabasis (the story of the expedition with Cyrus), and Encomium of Agesilaus. (2) Technical and didactic-on Horsemanship, the Hipparchicus (guide for a cavalry commander'), and the Cynegeticus (guide to hunting). (3) Politico-philosophical-The Lacedæmonian Polity, The Cyropadeia (the education of Cyrus,' rather a historical romance), and Athenian Finance. (4) Ethico-philosophical-Memorials of Socrates (sketches and dialogues illustrating the life and character of his master), Symposion, Economicus, Hieron, and Apology of Socrates. The Polity of Athens is probably an anonymous work written about 415 B.C. Xenophon's style and language is unaffected, simple, and clear, without any attempt at ornamentation. The editio princeps of the Greek text was that of Boninus (1516), followed by the Aldine in 1525. Later editions of the whole or part of his works are by Hutchinson, Weiske, Fischer, Schneider, Bornemann, Breitenbach, Krüger, Kühner, Sauppe, Dindorf, Schenkl,

XIMENES

Hertlein, Cobet, O. Keller, Hug, and Holden. See the Vita by Roquette (1884) and Croiset's French monograph (1873). [Zen'o-fon.]

Xerxes I., king of Persia in 485-465 B.C., suc ceeded when his father, Darius, died preparing for a third expedition against Greece. He first subdued the rebellious Egyptians, then started with a vast army drawn from all parts of the empire, and an enormous fleet furnished by the Phoenicians. A bridge, consisting of a double line of boats, was built across the Hellespont, and a canal cut through Mount Athos. In the autumn of 481 B.C. Xerxes arrived at Sardis. Next year the army began its march towards the Hellespont; it took seven days and nights to pass the bridge of boats. Herodotus puts the number of fighting-men at 2,641,610, and the ships-of-war at 1207, besides 3000 smaller vessels. When this immense force reached Thermopylæ, it was brought to a stand by Leonidas and his 300 Spartans. After these had been slain Xerxes marched on to Athens (480), and, finding it deserted, destroyed alike temples and houses. Meantime the fleet had sailed round from Eubœa. Xerxes witnessed the fight in the strait between Salamis and Attica. Confounded at the result, he fled to the Hellespont; and his hopes of conquest died with the fall of his general, Mardonius, on the fatal field of Platea (479 B.C.). Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus in 465, and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes. [Zerx'-eez.]

Ximenes, CARDINAL (1436-1517), was born Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros, of an ancient family, at Torrelaguna in Castile, and was educated at Alcalá, Salamanca, and Rome, where he obtained from the pope a nomination to an archpriestship in Toledo. The archbishop refused to admit him, and for six years imprisoned him. On his release he was named Vicar-general of Cardinal Mendoza, but entered a Franciscan monastery at Toledo (1482). Queen Isabella chose him for her confessor in 1492, and in 1495 made him Archbishop of Toledo. As archbishop he maintained the austerity of the monk, applying to religion and charity the princely revenues of his see. As the queen's spiritual counsellor he was the guiding spirit of Spanish affairs; and on her death in 1504 he held the balance between the parties of Ferdinand and Philip of Burgundy, husband of Joanna, the mad heiress to the crown. Appointed regent in 1506, he conducted the affairs of the kingdom through a critical time with consummate skill. In 1507 he was created cardinal, and next year organised at his own expense and commanded the expedition for the conquest of Oran and extirpation of piracy. Ferdinand on his deathbed (1516) named Ximenes regent of Spain till the arrival of his grandson Charles; and the aged cardinal quickly overawed the hostile grandees into submission, and quelled a revolt in Navarre. He died at Roa on his way to greet Charles, just arriving in Spain. Ximenes was fanatical in his hatred of heresy, and as Grandinquisitor caused the death of 2500 persons. The revolution he effected in breaking down the feudal power of the nobles has often been compared with the change wrought in France by Richelieu. His munificence as a patron of religion, of letters, and of art deserves the highest praise. founded the University of Alcalá de Henares, and published the famous Complutensian Polyglot. See the Latin Life by Gomez de Castro (1659), the French one by Fléchier (1700), and German ones by Hefele (2d ed. 1851; trans. 1860) and Ulrich (1883). [Spanish pron. Hee-may nays.]

He

ARMOUTH, SOPHIA VON WALMODEN, COUNTESS OF, already known to our George II. in Hanover, on Queen Caroline's death (1737) was brought to Eng land as the king's mistress, and created She died in 1765.

a countess. Yarrell, WILLIAM (1784-1856), naturalist, born at Westminster, originally a newspaper agent, devoted himself to zoological work. He wrote History of British Fishes (1835-36; 3d ed. 1859) and History of British Birds (1839-43; 4th ed. 1881-85).

Yates, EDMUND (1831-94), born at Edinburgh, the son of the actor-manager Frederick Henry Yates (1797-1842), from 1847 till 1872 had a berth in the Post-office, being for ten years chief of the missing-letter department. From 1854 he published over a score of novels and other works (Broken to Harness, Running the Gauntlet, Black Sheep, &c.); was editor of Temple Bar, Tinsley's, and other periodicals; and in 1874 founded, with Grenville Murray, a successful society' weekly, The World, which, for a libel on Lord Lonsdale, involved him in 1884 in two months' imprisonment. See his Recollections (1884).

Yeames, WILLIAM FREDERICK, historical and subject painter, born at Taganrog, S. Russia, 18th Dec. 1835, studied in London, Florence, and Rome, and became A. R. A. in 1866, R. A. in 1878.

Yeats, S. LEVETT, Examiner for the Indian Public Works Department, has written Widow Lamport (1892), The Romance of Guard Mulligan and other Stories (1893), The Honour of Savelli (1895), The Chevalier d'Auriac (1897), &c.

Yeats, WILLIAM BUTLER, born in Dublin, 13th June 1865, the son of an artist, was for three years an art student, but taking in 1888 to literature, published several collections of Irish tales, edited Blake's works (with E. J. Ellis), and is favourably known as a poet. The Secret Rose was published in 1897.

Yelverton, MRS, the name claimed by Theresa Longworth, daughter of a Manchester silk merchant, who was educated in a French convent, and was a nurse in the Crimea. She affirmed that Major Yelverton, afterwards Lord Avonmore (1824-83), married her privately (and irregularly) in Scotland in April 1857, and that in August they were married with Catholic rites in Ireland. Yelverton deserted her at Bordeaux in 1858, and married another lady. The Irish Court of Common Pleas found the Scotch marriage valid, and also the Irish one (1861). The Court of Session in Edinburgh decided against the validity; and so, on appeal, did the House of Lords (1867). The claimant lived mainly abroad, and died at Pietermaritzburg in Natal in Nov. 1881.

Yonge, CHARLOTTE MARY, only daughter of W. C. Yonge of Otterbourne, Hants, was born 11th August 1823. She gained a large constituency of readers by her Heir of Redclyffe (1853) and its successors, publishing some 120 volumes of fiction, High Church in tone. Part of the profits of the Heir of Redclyffe was devoted to fitting out the missionary schooner Southern Cross for Bishop Selwyn; and those of the Daisy Chain (£2000) she gave to build a missionary college in New Zealand. She has also published historical works, a book on Christian Names (1863), a Life of Bishop Patte son (1873), and a sketch of Hannah More (1888), besides translating much and editing the Monthly

Packet. An illustrated edition of her best novels and tales was issued in 1888-89. [Yung.]

York, CARDINAL. See STEWART.

York, DUKE OF, the title often of the second sons of the kings of England. Edward III.'s fourth son Edmund founded that House of York which fought the Wars of the Roses. James II. was recognised as Duke of York from 1669 till his accession in 1685. George I. conferred the title on his brother, Ernest Augustus; and George III. on his second son, Frederick Augustus (17631827), who showed his military incapacity in command of an expedition to the Netherlands against the French in 1793, and again in 1799, having in 1795 been made British commander-inchief. He had to resign that post because of the shameful traffic in military appointments carried on by his mistress, Mrs Clarke (q.v.), but was reinstated (1811). In 1892 the dukedom was conferred on Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, second son of the Prince of Wales, who by the death of his elder brother, the Duke of Clarence and Avondale, in the same year had become heir to the crown of England. Born at Marlborough House, 3d June 1865, Prince George was trained as a naval officer; and his brother's and his own diaries of their cruise on H.M.S. Bacchante (1879– 82) were published in 1885. In 1893 he married the Princess May of Cambridge. Their two eldest children, Prince Edward of York and Prince Albert of York, were born in 1894 and 1895.

Yorke, PHILIP, EARL OF HARDWICKE (1690– 1764), a Dover attorney's son, in 1737 became Lord Chancellor, supported Walpole, and held office under the Duke of Newcastle. His name is associated with the Marriage Act of 1754 abolishing Fleet marriages.

York von Wartenburg, HANS DAVID Ludwig (1759-1830), was the son of a Pomeranian captain, Von York or Jarck, claiming descent from an English family that had settled during the Stewart troubles first in Sweden and then in Pomerania. He entered the army in 1772, was cashiered for insubordination, and served in the Dutch East Indies, but rejoining the Prussian service, gained glory in the wars of 1794, 1806, 1812, and 1813-14 Ennobled 1814, he was made a field-marshal in 1821.

Young, ARTHUR (1741-1820), writer on agriculture, was born at Whitehall, but spent his boyhood, as indeed most of his life, at Bradfield near Bury St Edmunds, his father being rector and a prebendary of Canterbury. In 1763 he rented a small farm of his mother's, on which he made 3000 unsuccessful experiments; during 1766-71 held a good-sized farm in Essex (ruin the result); from 1776 to 1778 was in Ireland; resumed farming at Bradfield; and in 1793 was appointed secretary to the Board of Agriculture, with a salary of £600. Blind from 1811, he died in London, and was buried at Bradfield. Young, by his writings, was one of the first to elevate agriculture to a science. They include A Tour through the Southern Counties (1768), A Tour through the North of England (1771), The Farmer's Tour through the East of England (1770-71), Tour in Ireland (1780), Travels in France during 1787-8889-90 (a very memorable view of the state of France just before the Revolution, 1792-94), The Farmer's Kalendar (215th ed. 1862), and 'Agricultural Surveys' of eight English counties, besides many papers in The Annals of Agriculture, which he edited. See A. W. Hutton's edition of the