NICHOLS

the Hungarian insurrection, and drew closer the alliance with Prussia. The re-establishment of the French empire confirmed these alliances, and led Nicholas to think that the time had come for absorbing Turkey; but the opposition of Britain and France brought on the Crimean war, during which he died, March 2, 1855. He was fanatically beloved by his subjects. See Lacroix, Histoire de Nicolas I. (1864-73).-NICHOLAS II., born 18th May 1868, in 1894 succeeded his father, Alexander III., and married the Princess Alix (Alexandra) of Hesse, who was born 6th July 1872, the youngest daughter of the Princess Alice. A close rapprochement to France has characterised his reign.

Nichols, a family of printers and antiquaries, associated with the Gentleman's Magazine from 1778 to 1856. To it belonged John Nichols (17451826); his son, John Bowyer Nichols (1779-1863); and his son, John Gough Nichols (1806-73).

Nicholson, EDWARD WILLIAMS BYRON, Bodley librarian since 1882, born at St Helier, 16th March 1849, has written on libraries and on ancient inscriptions, a commentary on Matthew, &c.

Nicholson, HENRY ALLEYNE, born at Penrith, 11th Sept. 1844, studied at Göttingen and Edinburgh; and, professor of Natural History at St Andrews (1875) and Aberdeen (1882), has written over twenty works on zoology and palæontology, Nicholson, JOHN, Indian soldier, was born in Dublin, 11th December 1821. In 1839 he joined the H.E.I.C. service, and in 1840 his regiment was ordered to Ghazni in Afghanistan, where, two years later, it was compelled to surrender, and he endured a miserable captivity. In 1846 he became assistant to the resident at Lahore. During the Sikh rebellion of 1848 he saved the fortress of Attock, and at Chillianwalla and Gujrat he earned the special approval of Lord Gough. The Punjab having become a British province, Nicholson was appointed deputy-commissioner (1851), and his success in bringing the savage tribes under subjection was marvellous. In 1857 he perhaps did more than any other man to hold the Punjab; twice he nearly annihilated a rebel force. As brigadier-general, on Sept. 14 he led the storming party at the siege of Delhi, and fell mortally wounded. He died on the 23d. See Life by Captain Trotter (1897).

Nicholson, JOSEPH SHIELD, born at Wrawby near Brigg, 9th Nov. 1850, studied at Edinburgh and Cambridge, and in 1880 became professor of Political Economy at Edinburgh. He has written a treatise on Money (1888) and other economic works, and, anonymously, three romances (188890)-Thoth, A Dreamer of Dreams, and Toxar.

Nicholson, MARGARET (c. 1750-1828), sempstress, tried to stab George III. in 1806 with an old dessert-knife, and died in Bedlam. See SHELLEY.

Nicholson, PETER (1765-1844), mathematician and architect, was the son of a stone-mason at Prestonkirk in East Lothian, and wrote, at Lon. don, Carlisle, and elsewhere, some thirty books.

Nicholson, WILLIAM (1655-1727), successively Bishop of Carlisle and Derry, published the Historical Library (English, Scottish, and Irish) and other important works and collections.

Nicholson, WILLIAM (1781-1844), portraitpainter and etcher, born in Ovingham-on-Tyne, about 1814 settled in Edinburgh, and was the first secretary of the Royal Scottish Academy.

Nicholson, WILLIAM (1783-1849), Galloway pedlar-poet, was born and died at Borgue. See his Poems (4th ed. by Harper, 1897).

Nicholson, WILLIAM (1816-64), born near White

haven, emigrated as a grocer to Melbourne in 1841, became mayor 1850, and premier of Victoria 1859. He got the ballot adopted in 1855.

Nicias, Athenian statesman and general, belonged to the aristocratic party, and opposed Cleon and Alcibiades. In 427-426 B.C. he defeated the Spartans and the Corinthians. In 424 he ravaged Laconia, but in 421 made peace between Sparta and Athens. In the naval expedition against Sicily (418) he was one of the commanders. In 415 he laid siege to Syracuse, and was at first successful, but subsequently experienced a series of disasters; his troops were forced to surrender, and he was put to death in 414. See Plutarch's Life of Nikias (ed. by H. A. Holden, 1887).

Nicol, ERSKINE, R.S.A., A.R.A. (1866; retired 1885), born at Leith, 3d July 1825, lived in Dublin 1843-46, and settled in London in 1862. He paints homely incidents in Irish and Scottish life."

Nicol, WILLIAM (c. 1744-97), a classical master in the High School of Edinburgh, was the too convivial intimate of Robert Burns.

Nicolai, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH, author, bookseller, and publisher born 18th March 1733 at Berlin. He early distinguished himself by a series of critical letters (1756) contributed to many literary journals, and for many years edited the Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek (106 vols. 176592). He wrote topographical works, satires, anecdotes of Frederick the Great, and an autobiography (recording strange apparitions and hallucinations of his own). He died 8th January 1811.

Nicolai, Orro (1810-49), composer, born at Königsberg, in 1847 became kapellmeisterat Berlin. The opera The Merry Wives of Windsor (1848) is his.

Nicolas, SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS, antiquary, born at Dartmouth, 10th March 1799, served in the navy 1808-16, and was called to the bar in 1825. He devoted himself chiefly to genealogical and historical studies, as in his History of British Orders of Knighthood (1841-42). Made K. H. and K.C.M.G., he died 3d August 1848. Others of his thirty works are the Dispatches and Letters of Nelson (1844-46), the unfinished History of the British Navy (1847), Synopsis of the Peerage (1825), Chronology of History (1835), Privy Council Ordinances (1833-37), Life of William Davison (1823), Memoirs of Ritson (1833), &c.

Nicole, PIERRE (1625-95), one of the most distinguished of the Port Royalists, the friend of Arnauld and Pascal. See JANSEN.

Nicolini. See PATTI.

Nicoll, ROBERT (1814-37), born at Little Tully. beltane, Perth, started a circulating library in Dundee, published Songs and Lyrics (1835), and worked himself to death as editor of the ultraRadical Leeds Times. See Life prefixed to his Poems (1877) and that by P. R. Drummond (1884).

Nicoll, WILLIAM ROBERTSON, LL.D., born 10th Oct. 1851, at Lumsden, Aberdeenshire, studied at Aberdeen, was Free Church minister at Dufftown 1874-77 and Kelso 1877-85. He then addressed himself to literary work in London, becoming editor of the Expositor, the British Weekly (1686), and the Bookman. He has written works in biography, theology, and literary criticism.

Nicot, JEAN (1530-1600), French ambassador at Lisbon, in 1561 introduced into France the tobacco-plant, called after him Nicotiana. He compiled one of the first French dictionaries (1606).

Niebuhr, BARTHOLD GEORG, historian, born August 27, 1776, at Copenhagen, son of the traveller, Karsten Niebuhr (1788-1815), studied

NIEL

at Kiel, London, and Edinburgh (1798-99). In 1800 he entered the Danish state-service, and in 1806 the Prussian civil service. The opening of the university of Berlin in 1810 proved a new era in his life. He gave (1810-12) a course of lectures on Roman history, which established his position as one of the most original and philosophical of modern historians. In 1816 he was appointed Prussian ambassador at the papal court, and on his return in 1823 he took up his residence at Bonn, where his lectures gave a powerful impetus to historical learning. The revolution of 1830 produced such mental depression and bodily pros tration as ended in his death, 2d January 1831. Niebuhr possessed great intuitive sagacity in sifting true from false historic evidence; and though his scepticism as to the credibility of early history goes too far, the bulk of his contribution to history still stands substantially unshaken. Of his Römische Geschichte (3 vols. 1811-32) the first two volumes were translated by Hare and Thirlwall, and the third by Smith and Schmitz; other works translated by Schmitz into English are Lectures on the Hist. of Rome, to Fall of Western Empire (2d ed. 1850); Lectures on Ancient Hist. (1852); and Lectures on Ancient Ethnography and Geog. (1853). Other works are Lectures on Roman history to the fall of the Empire, an ancient Ethnography and Geography, and Griech. Heroengeschichte (1842). He helped to re-edit the Byzantine Historians. See Madame Hensler's Lebensnachrichten (1838; trans. 1852), and the studies by Classen (1876) and Eyssenhardt (1886).

Niel, ADOLPHE, French marshal, born at Muret (Upper Garonne), 4th October 1802, entered the army as an engineer officer. He took part in the storming of Constantine in Algeria (1836), the siege of Rome (1849), the bombardment of Bomarsund (1854), the fall of Sebastopol (1856), and the battles of Magenta and Solferino (1859). Minister of war in 1867, he died 14th August 1869.

Niembsch. See LENAU.

Niepce, JOSEPH NICEPHORE, one of the inventors of photography, born at Châlon-surSaône, 7th March 1765, served in the army, and in 1795 became administrator of Nice. At Chalon in 1801 he devoted himself to chemistry, lithography, and to experiments with sunlight pictures which brought him into connection with Daguerre and made photography possible. He died 5th July 1833. His nephew, CLAUDE MARIE FRANÇOIS NIEPCE DE ST VICTOR (1805-70), wrote a Traité Pratique (1856) on the subject, and Recherches Photographiques (1855). [Nee-epps'.]

Nietzsche, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, born the son of a pastor at Röcken in Saxony, 15th October 1844, studied at Bonn and Leipzig, and obtained distinction by treatises on Theognis, on the origin of tragedy, &c. But from 1878 he began in a long series of works to expound a revolutionary philosophy denouncing all religion and treating all moral laws as a remnant of Christian superstition, cherishing the virtues of the weak.' His ideal, 'the overman,' is to be developed by giving unbridled freedom to the struggle for existence, will seek only his own power and pleasure, and knows nothing of pity. A translation by Tille of eight volumes of his works began with Thus Spake Zarathustra (1896). His mind became unhinged, and in 1895 he became an inmate of an asylum. See the Quarterly, Oct. 1896. [Neet' sheh.]

Nightingale, FLORENCE, daughter of William Edward Nightingale of Embley Park, Hampshire, was born at Florence, 15th May 1820. In 1844 she inspected hospitals all over Europe, and went

into training as a nurse at Kaiserswerth (1851) and Paris. In 1854 war was declared with Russia; after the battle of the Alma Miss Nightingale offered to go out and organise a nursing depart ment at Scutari, and in October she departed with thirty-four nurses. She arrived in time to receive the wounded from Inkermann (5th November) into overcrowded wards; soon she had 10,000 sick men under her care. But she saw in the bad sanitary arrangements of the hospitals the causes of their frightful mortality, and devoted herself to the removal of these causes. In the spring of 1855 she was prostrated with fever, but remained at Scutari till Turkey was evacuated by the British, July 1856. A fund of £50,000 was subscribed to enable her to form an institution for the training of nurses at St Thomas's and at King's College Hospital. In 1858 she published her Notes on Nursing; her Notes on Hospitals (1859) are equally valuable. In 1871 she published Notes on Lying-in Institutions; in 1873, Life or Death in India and (in Fraser's Magazine) 'A Note of Interrogation' on religious belief. She assisted in founding the Red Cross Society.

Nilsson, CHRISTINE, operatic singer, was born at Wexio, Sweden, 3d August 1843, and singing at a fair in 1857 so impressed a magistrate of Ljungby that he sent her for a musical education to Stockholm and Paris. She made her debut at Paris in 1864; and in London, where she appeared in 1867, soon became one of the foremost soprano singers. She repeatedly visited the United States. She married (1872) M. Rouzand, who died in 1882; and in 1887 at Paris she became the wife of the Count de Miranda.

Ninian, ST (Lowland Scotch, 'Ringan '), the first known apostle of Scotland, was born, about 360, on the shores of the Solway Firth. He made a pilgrimage to Rome, was consecrated bishop by the pope, visited St Martin at Tours, and he founded the church of Whithorn (397). He laboured successfully for the evangelisation of the Southern Picts, and died in 432. See his Life by Ailred (1109-66), edited by Bishop Forbes (1874). Ninon. See LENCLOS.

Nithsdale, WILLIAM MAXWELL, EARL OF, born in 1676, at seven succeeded his father as fifth earl. In 1699 he married Lady Winifred Herbert (c. 1679-1749), youngest daughter of the Marquis of Powis, and lived at his Kirkcudbrightshire seat, Terregles. A Catholic, in 1715 he joined the English Jacobites under Forster and Derwentwater, and was taken prisoner at Preston. was tried for high-treason in London, and sentenced to death; but on 23d February 1716-the night before the day fixed for his execution-he escaped from the Tower in woman's apparel, through the heroism of his countess. They settled at Rome, where the earl died 20th March 1744. See Sir W. Fraser's Book of Carlaverock (1873).

He

Nitzsch, KARL LUDWIG (1751-1831), Protestant theologian, became in 1790 professor at Wittenberg. KARL IMMANUEL NITZSCH (1787-1868), his son, became professor at Bonn in 1822, and in 1847 at Berlin. He subordinated dogma to ethics, and was one of the leaders of the broad evangelical school. His chief books are System der Christlichen Lehre (1829; Eng. trans. 1849), Praktische Theologie (1847-67), Christliche Glaubenslehre (1858), several volumes of sermons and essays. studies by Beyschlag (2d ed. 1882) and Hermens (1886).-GREGOR WILHELM NITZSCH (1790-1861), philologist, brother of the preceding, fought as a volunteer at Leipzig, and from 1827 professor at Kiel, from 1852 at Leipzig, devoted himself to

See

NORRIS

lish soldier, who fought in the Low Country wars, in France, on the coast of Spain, and in Ireland.

Norris, WILLIAM EDWARD, Son of the Chiefjustice of Ceylon, was born in 1847, was called to the bar in 1874, and has published Heaps of Money (1877), Matrimony, My Friend Jim, The Rogue, Clarissa Furiosa (1897), and other novels.

North, a family whose most illustrious members were three of the sons of Dudley, fourth Baron North of Kirtling in Cambridgeshire, whose lives were written by their brother Roger.-SIR EDWARD NORTH (1496-1564), fainous as a lawyer, was created Baron North in 1554.-SIR THOMAS NORTH (?1535-?1601), his second son, is known by his translation of Plutarch (1579), from the French of Amyot, a noble monument of English, and one of the fountains from which Shakespeare drew his knowledge of ancient history (ed. by Wyndham, 6 vols. 1895 et seq.). Other translations by North were The Diall of Princes, from a French version of Guevara, and The Morall Philosophie of Doni, from the Italian (1570; new ed. by Joseph Jacobs, 1888).-FRANCIS North (1637-85), second son of Dudley, fourth Baron North, was born 22d October 1637. He was educated at Cambridge, called to the bar in 1655, and was successively Solicitor general, Attorney-general, Lord Chiefjustice of the Court of Common Pleas, Privy-councillor, Lord-keeper of the Great Seal, and Baron Guilford (1683).-SIR DUDLEY NORTH (1641-91), third son, became a Turkey merchant in London, voyaged, and for a time settled in Constantinople. One of the sheriffs of London, he was pliant enough in the interest of the crown, was knighted, and was appointed a Commissioner of Customs. Under James II. he sat for Banbury. He was a keen-eyed observer, and had great mechanical genius, and his Discourses upon Trade (1691) anticipate Adam Smith.-DR JOHN NORTH (1645– 83), fifth son, was fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge, succeeded Barrow as Master of Trinity College in 1677, and became clerk of the closet to Charles II. ROGER NORTH (1653-1734), sixth and youngest brother, was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, entered the Middle Temple, and rose to a lucrative practice at the bar. At the Revolu tion his hopes of advancement were closed, and he cast in his lot with the nonjuring party, and retired to his estate of Rougham in Norfolk. His three hyper-eulogistic biographies, his autobiography (all collected by Jessopp in 1890), and his Examen (1740) of Dr White Kennet's History of England gave him a place in English literature. -FREDERICK NORTH, eighth Lord North and second Earl of Guilford, statesman, was born April 13, 1732, and educated at Oxford. twenty-two he entered parliament, and was made a Tory Lord of the Treasury in 1759. In 1767, eloquent and witty, he was made Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. In 1770 he succeeded the Duke of Grafton as prime-minister. North was largely responsible for the measures that brought about the loss of America, being too ready to surrender his judgment to the king's. In 1782 he resigned. Fox's dislike of the terms of peace with America led him to enter into a coalition with North, whom he had heretofore inveighed against; and for a few months the two took office under the Duke of Portland in 1783. North succeeded his father as Earl of Guilford in 1790, and died 5th August 1792.-BROWNLOW NORTH, evangelist, was grandson of that Brownlow North (1741-1820), Bishop of Lichfield, Worcester, and Winchester, whose son succeeded in 1827 as sixth Earl of

At

NOVALIS

Guilford. Born at Chelsea, January 6, 1810, he travelled abroad, gambled, and lived much in the north of Scotland, but underwent conversion in 1854, and thereafter devoted himself to evangelical labours under the Free Church, as well as in Ireland and England. He died November 9, 1875. See Life by K. Moody-Stuart (1878).—MARIANNE NORTH (1830-90), a descendant of Roger of the 'Lives,' painted flowers with extraordinary beauty all round the world (1871-79), and gave her very valuable collection to the Kew Gardens.

North, COLONEL JOHN THOMAS (1842-96), 'the Nitrate King,' became owner of vast nitrate fields in Tarapaca and of enormous wealth.

Northcote, JAMES, R.A. (1746-1831), the son of a Plymouth watchmaker, was eminent as a portrait-painter, and painted many historical pictures. See Hazlitt's Conversations with Northcote (new ed. by Gosse, 1894).

Northcote, SIR STAFFORD. See IDDESLEIGH.

Norton, ANDREWS (1786-1853), American Unitarian theologian, graduated at Harvard in 1804, in 1813 became librarian and lecturer on biblical criticism, and in 1819 professor of Sacred Literature. His chief writings are Reasons for not be lieving the Doctrines of Trinitarians (1833), and two works on The Genuineness of the Gospels. He left a translation of the gospels, which was edited (1855) by Dr Abbot and his son, CHARLES ELIOT NORTON, born 16th November 1827, who in 186468 was joint-editor with Lowell of the North American Review. He has published works relating to Italy, Dante, Michelangelo, and William Blake, and edited Carlyle's letters, &c.

Norton, HoN. MRS CAROLINE E. S., poet and novelist, was born in London in 1808, second of the three beautiful granddaughters of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Her eldest sister became Lady Dufferin, the other Duchess of Somerset ; and she herself in 1827 married a barrister, the Hon. George Chapple Norton (1800-75). She bore him three sons, of whom the second succeeded as fourth Lord Grantley; but the marriage proved most unhappy, and her friendship with Lord Melbourne (q.v.) led her husband to institute a groundless and unsuccessful action of divorce (1836). poems include The Sorrows of Rosalie (1829), The Undying One (the Wandering Jew, 1830), The Child of the Islands (1845), and The Lady of La Garaye (1862); her novels, Stuart of Dunleath (1851), Lost and Saved (1863), and Old Sir Douglas (1868). In March 1877 she married Sir William Stirling Maxwell (q.v.), but died 15th June.

Her

Norton, THOMAS (1532-84), lawyer, M.P., and poet, with Sackville (q. v.)joint-author of Gorboduc, was born in London, and died at Sharpenhoe, Beds.

Nostrada'mus (Michel de Notredame), astrologer, born at St Remi in Provence, 14th December 1503. He became doctor of medicine in 1529, and practised at Agen, Lyons, &c. He commenced prophet about 1547. His Centuries of predictions in rhymed quatrains (two collections, 1555-58), expressed generally in obscure and enig matical terms, brought their author a great reputation. Charles IX. on his accession appointed him physician-in-ordinary. Nostradamus died 2d July 1566. See books on him by Jaubert (1656), Haitze (1712), and Bareste (1842).