LUNARDI

all possible problems by a systematic manipulation of certain fundamental notions (the Aristotelian categories, &c.). He also wrote a book against the Averroists, and in 1291 went to Tunis to confute and convert the Mohammedaus, but was imprisoned and banished. After visiting Naples, Rome, Majorca, Cyprus, and Armenia, he again sailed (1305) for Bugia (Bougie) in Algeria, and was again banished; at Paris lectured against the principles of Averroes; and once more at Bugia was stoned so that he died a few days afterwards. The Lullists combined religious mysticism with alchemy. See books by Helfferich (Berl. 1858), Canalejas (Madr. 1870), and Brambach (1893); and the editions of his works by Salzinger (1721-42) and Rossello (1886 et seq.).

Lunardi, VINCENZO (1759-1806), a native of Lucca, on 15th September 1784 made the first balloon ascent in England from Moorfields.

Lundgren, EGRON SELLIF (1815-75), who was born and died at Stockholm, painted in Italy, Spain, and India, and twice lived in England.

Lupton, THOMAS GOFF (1791-1873), mezzotint engraver, was born and died in London. Among his works are Turner's Ports' and 'Rivers.' Lusignan. See GUY DE LUSIGNAN.

Luthardt, CHRISTOPH ERNST, Lutheran theologian, born 22d March 1823, became professor at Marburg (1854) and at Leipzig (1856). He is best known for his Commentary on John's Gospel (1852-53; 2d ed. 1876), which has been translated, as has also St John the Author of the Fourth Gospel, works on ethics and the truths of Christianity, a handbook of dogmatics (1865; 9th ed. 1893), &c. See his Reminiscences (2d ed. 1891).

He

Luther, MARTIN, was born at Eisleben, 10th November 1483, the son of a miner, and went to school at Magdeburg and Eisenach. In 1501 he entered the University of Erfurt, and took his degree in 1505. Ere this, however, he was led to the study of the Scriptures, resolved to devote himself to a spiritual life, and spent three years in the Augustinian convent at Erfurt. In 1507 he was ordained a priest, in 1508 lectured on philosophy in the University of Wittenberg, in 1509 on the Scriptures, and as a preacher produced a still more powerful influence. In 1511 he was sent to Rome, and after his return his career as a Reformer commenced. Money was largely needed at Rome; and its emissaries sought everywhere to raise funds by the sale of indulgences. Luther's indignation at the shameless traffic carried on by the Dominican John Tetzel (1517) became irrepressible. drew out ninety-five theses on indulgences, denying to the pope all right to forgive sins; and these on 31st October he nailed on the church door at Wittenberg. Tetzel retreated from Saxony to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he published a set of counter-theses and burnt Luther's. Wittenberg students retaliated by burning Tetzel's. In 1518 Luther was joined by Melanchthon. The pope, Leo X., at first took little heed of the disturbance, but in 1518 summoned Luther to Rome to answer for his theses. His university and the elector interfered, and ineffective negotiations were undertaken by Cardinal Cajetan and by Miltitz, envoy of the pope to the Saxon court. Eck and Luther held a memorable disputation at Leipzig (1519). Luther meantime attacked the papal system as a whole more boldly. Erasmus and Hutten now joined in the conflict. In 1520 the Reformer published his famous address to the Christian Nobles of Germany,' followed by a treatise On the Babylonish

The

In

Captivity of the Church, which works attacked also the doctrinal system of the Church of Rome. The papal bull, containing forty-one theses, issued against him he burned before a multitude of doctors, students, and citizens in Wittenberg. Germany was convulsed with excitement. Charles V. had convened his first diet at Worms in 1521; an order was issued for the destruction of Luther's books, and he himself was summoned to appear before the diet. His journey thither resembled a triumph; the threats of enemies and the anxieties of friends alike failed to move him; ultimately he was put under the ban of the Empire. On his return from Worms he was seized, at the instigation of the Elector of Saxony, and lodged (really for his protection) in the Wartburg. During the year he spent here he translated the Scriptures and composed various treatises. Disorders recalled Luther to Wittenberg in 1522; he rebuked the unruly spirits, and mnade a stand against lawlessness on the one hand and tyranny on the other. In this year he published his acrimonious reply to Henry VIII. on the seven sacrainents. Estrangement had gradually sprung up between Erasinus and Luther, and there was an open breach in 1525, when Erasmus published De Libero Arbitrio, and Luther followed with De Servo Arbitrio. that year Luther married Katharina von Bora (q.v.), one of nine nuns who had withdrawn from conventual life. In 1529 he engaged in his famous conference at Marburg with Zwingli and other Swiss divines, obstinately maintaining his views as to the Real (consubstantial) Presence in the Eucharist. The drawing up of the Augsburg Confession, Melanchthon representing Luther, marks the culmination of the German Reformation (1530); henceforward Luther's life was uneventful. He died at Eisleben, 18th February 1546, and was buried at Wittenberg. Endowed with broad human sympathies, massive energy, manly and affectionate simplicity, and rich, if sometimes coarse humour, he was undoubtedly a spiritual genius. His intuitions of divine truth were bold, vivid, and penetrating, if not philosophical and comprehensive; and he possessed the power of kindling other souls with the fire of his own convictions. His works are voluminous. Ainong those of more general interest are his Table-talk, Letters, and Sermons. His Commentaries on Galatians and the Psalms are still read; and he was one of the great leaders of sacred song, his hymns, rugged, but intense and expressive, having an enduring power. The great editions of Luther's works are those of Wittenberg (12 vols. German; 7 vols. Latin, 1539-58); Halle, ed. by Walch (German, 24 vols. 1740-53); Erlangen and Frankfort (67 vols. German; 33 vols. Latin, 1826-73); and Weimar (1883 et seq.). Of the many Lives the most important are those of Meurer (3d ed. 1870), Jürgens (1846-47), Köstlin (1875; 4th ed. 1889; also a popular ed, 9th ed. 1891), Plitt and Petersen (3d ed. 1887), and Kolde (1884-93). There is an English Life by Peter Bayne (1887); and see Beard's Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany (1889).

Luttrell, HENRY (c. 1765-1851), a London wit. Lützow, Ludwig Adolf WILHELM, FREIHERR VON (1782-1934), gave name to a renowned corps of volunteers, the Black Jäger,' raised by him during the war of liberation in 1813. See work by Von Jagwitz (Berl. 1892).

Luxembourg, Duc de. François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville (1628-95), born in Paris, was trained by his aunt, mother of the Great

LUYNES

Condé, and adhered to Condé through the wars of the Fronde. After 1659 he was pardoned by Louis XIV., who created him Duc de Luxem bourg (1661) he had just married the heiress of Luxembourg-Piney. In 1667 he served under Condé in Franche-Comté; in 1672 he himself successfully invaded the Netherlands, and, driven back in 1673, conducted a masterly retreat. During the war he stormed Valenciennes and twice defeated the Prince of Orange. Made a marshal in 1675, soon after the peace (1678) he quarrelled with Louvois (q. v.), and was not employed for twelve years. In 1690 he commanded in Flanders, and defeated the allies at Fleurus, and in 1691 twice more routed his old opponent, now William III., at Steinkirk and Neerwinden.

Luynes, CHARLES D'ALBERT, DUC DE (15781621), the unworthy favourite of Louis XIII. of France, became in 1619 a peer of France, and in 1621 chancellor. See Life by Zeller (Par. 1879).

Lyall, SIR ALFRED COMYNS, born at Coulston, Surrey, in 1835, and educated at Eton and Haileybury, was lieutenant-governor of the North-west Provinces of India 1882-87, having in 1881 been created a K.C.B.; in 1888 he was appointed a member of the Council of India. He has written

Asiatic Studies (1882), Warren Hastings (1889), Rise of the British Dominion in India (1893), &c.

Lyall, EDNA, the pen-name of the novelist Ada Ellen Bayly, a native of Brighton. She has written Won by Waiting (1879), Donovan (1882), with its sequel We Two (1884), In the Golden Days (1885), Knight Errant (1887), Autobiography of a Slander (1887), Derrick Vaughan and A Hardy Norseman (1889), To Right the Wrong (1893), Doreen, the Story of a Singer (1894), &c.

Lycurgus (c. 396-325 B.C.), Attic orator, supported Demosthenes, and as manager of the public revenue distinguished himself by his integrity and love of splendid architecture. Of his fifteen speeches but one has survived (ed. by Nicolai, 2d ed. 1885). See the full French monograph by Dürrbach (1890).

Lycurgus, lawgiver of Sparta (c. 820 B.C.), was uncle of the young king Charilaos, and governed wisely during his nephew's infancy, then travelled in Crete, Ionia, and Egypt. On his return, finding Sparta in anarchy, he redivided property, and remodelled the constitution, military and civil.

Lydgate, JOHN, an imitator of Chaucer, was born at Lydgate near Newmarket, about 1370, and became a Benedictine monk at Bury St Edmunds. He studied at Oxford, travelled in France and perhaps in Italy, became a courtpoet, and wrote poetry upon the most widely different themes. He received a pension in 1439, but died in poverty about 1451. Ritson attributes (wildly) 251 pieces to Lydgate. Lydgate's longer works are the Storie of Thebes, the Troy Book, and the Falls of Princes. The Storie of Thebes is represented as a new Canterbury tale, and was based on Statius and Boccaccio. The versification is rough, and the poem dull and prolix. Troy Book was founded on Colonna's Latin prose Historia Trojana, and the Falls of Princes on Boccaccio. Other works are the Dance of Machabre, translated from the French; Court of Sapience; and Temple of Glas, a copy of Chaucer's House of Fame; also a metrical Life of St Edmund and the Legend of St Alban. Halliwell edited a selection from the minor poems in 1840, and Dr Schick his Temple of Glas (Early Eng. Text Soc. 1891). Lyell, SIR CHARLES, geologist, born at Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14th November 1797, the

The

eldest son of the mycologist and Dante student, Charles Lyell (1767-1849). Brought up in the New Forest, and educated at Ringwood, Salisbury, and Midhurst, in 1816 he entered Exeter College, Oxford, and took his B.A. in 1819. At Oxford in 1819 he attended the lectures of Buckland, and acquired a taste for the science he afterwards did so much to promote. He studied law, and was called to the bar; but devoting himself to geology, made European tours in 1824 and 1828-30, and published the results in the Transac tions of the Geological Society and elsewhere. His Principles of Geology (1830-33) may be ranked next after Darwin's Origin of Species among the books which have exercised the most powerful influ ence on scientific thought in the 19th century. It denied the necessity of stupendous convulsions, and taught that the greatest geological changes might have been produced by forces still at work. The Elements of Geology (1838) was a supplement. The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man (1863) startled the public by its unbiassed attitude towards Darwin. Lyell also published Travels in North America (1845) and A Second Visit to the United States (1849). In 1832-33 he was professor of Geology at King's College, London. Repeatedly president of the Geological Society, and in 1864 president of the British Association, he was knighted in 1848, and created a baronet in 1864. He died in London, 22d February 1875, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. See Life, Letters, and Journals (1881), and Prof. Bonney's Charles Lyell and Geology (1895).

Lyly, JOHN, the Euphuist, was born in the Weald of Kent towards the end of 1553. He took his B.A. from Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1573, and studied also at Cambridge. Lord Burghley gave him some post of trust in his household, and he became vice-master of the St Paul's choristers. Having in 1589 taken part in the Marprelate controversy, he was returned to parliament for Aylesbury and Appleby, 1597-1601. He was buried 30th November 1606. His Euphues, a romance in two parts-Euphues, the Anatomie of Wit (1579), and Euphues and his England (1580) -was received with great applause. One peculiarity of his new English' is the constant employment of similes drawn from fabulous stories about the properties of animals, plants, and minerals; another is the excessive indulgence in antithesis. But sound advice is offered on the subject of friendship, love, travel, the nature and education of children, morality, and religion. Lyly's earliest comedy was The Woman in the Moone, produced in or before 1583. Campaspe and Sapho and Phao were published in 1584, Endimion in 1591, Gallathea and Midas in 1592, Mother Bombie in 1594, and Love's Metamorphosis in 1601. Though these comedies display little dramatic power, the dialogue is frequently sparkling. The delightful songs were first printed in the edition of 1632. Lyly's plays were edited by Fairholt in 1858; Euphues is in Prof. Arber's English Reprints (1868); Endimion was edited by George P. Baker (New York, 1895). See C. G. Child's John Lyly and Euphuism (Leip. 1894).

Lynch, MAYOR, the familiar title of the mayor of Galway, James Lynch Fitzstephen, who in 1493 condemned his own son to death for the murder of a Spaniard, and, to prevent his being rescued, had him hanged from a window of the jail. Hence some have derived Lynch law.'

Lyndhurst, JOHN SINLGETON COPLEY, BARON, Lord Chancellor, son of J. S. Copley, R.A. (q.v.), was born at Boston, Mass., 21st May 1772.

At

LYNDSAY

As

three, with his mother, he followed the painter to London, and in 1790 entered Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1794 he came out second wrangler and second Smith's prizeman, next year got a fellowship, and in 1796 paid a visit to the States. On his return he studied for the bar, and was called in 1804. Success was slow till 1812, when he made a hit by his ingenious defence of a Luddite rioter. In 1817 he obtained the acquittal of Thistlewood and Watson on their trial for high-treason; but for the next state prosecution the government secured him on their side, and in 1818 he entered parliament for a government borough. Henceforward he continued a fairly consistent Tory. In 1819, as Sir John Copley, he became Solicitor-general, in 1824 Attorneygeneral, and in 1826 Master of the Rolls. Baron Lyndhurst he was Lord Chancellor under three administrations from 1827 to 1830, when his Whig opponents made him Chief-baron of the Exchequer; that office he exchanged for the woolsack under Peel (1834-35). In 1841-46 he was for the third time Lord Chancellor. He died 12th Oct. 1863. Lyndhurst's judgments have never been excelled for lucidity, method, and legal acumen. See Life by Sir Theodore Martin (1883). Lyndsay, or LINDSAY, SIR DAVID, OF THE MOUNT, Scottish poet, was born in 1490 at one or the other of his father's seats-the Mount near Cupar, or Garmylton (now Garleton) near Haddington. He seems to have entered St Salvator's College, St Andrews, in 1509, and in 1512 was appointed 'usher' of the new-born prince who became James V. In 1522 Lyndsay married Janet Douglas, the king's sempstress; in 1526, under the Douglases, he lost his place; but in 1528 he was made Lyon King-of-arms and knighted. He went on embassies to the Netherlands, France, England, and Denmark. He appears to have represented Cupar in the parliaments of 1542 and 1543. He died in 1555. For two centuries he was the poet of the Scottish people. His poems, often coarse, are full of humour, good sense, and knowledge of the world, and were said to have done more for the Reformation in Scotland than all the sermons of Knox, for Lyndsay shot some of his sharpest shafts at the clergy. The earliest and most poetical of his writings is The Dreme; the most ambitious, The Monarchie; the most remarkable, The Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis; the most amusing, The Historie of Sunyer Meldrum. There are editions by Chalmers (1806) and David Laing (1879). Some of his poenis were edited by Small and Hall (Early English Text Soc. 1865-71). Lyndsay of Pitscottie. See PITSCOTTIE. Lyne. See IGNATIUS, FATHER,

Lynedoch, THOMAS GRAHAM, LORD, son of the laird of Balgowan in Perthshire, born 19th Oct. 1748, raised in 1793 the 90th Regiment of foot, and served at Quibéron and in Minorca (1798). He besieged Valetta in 1800, was at Corunna and in Walcheren (1809), at Barossa defeated the French (1811), fought at Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), Badajoz, and Salamanca, commanded the left wing at Vittoria (1813), captured Tolosa and St Sebastian, and in Holland conquered at Merxem, but failed to storm Bergen-op-Zoom (1814). Created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan (1814), he died 18th Dec. 1843. He founded the Senior United Service Club (1817). See Lives by Graham (2d ed. 1877) and Col. Delavoye (1880). [Lin'dokh.]

Lyon, JOHN (d. 1592), yeoman, in 1571 founded the great public school of Harrow.

Lyons, EDMUND, LORD (1790-1858), admiral, commanded in the Dutch West Indies (1810-11)

LYTTON

and in Crimean waters, and was raised to the peerage in 1856.-His elder son, RICHARD BICKERTON (1817-87), British minister or ambassador to the United States, Turkey, and France, was made a viscount in 1881, an earl in 1887.

Lysaght, EDWARD (1763-1811), barrister and Dublin police magistrate, wrote Cruisken Lawn and other well-known Irish lyrics. See memoir prefixed to his Poems (1811).

Lysander, as commander of the Spartan fleet defeated the Athenians at Notium (407 B.C.) and Egospotami (405), there capturing 171 out of 180 ships. Finally, in 404 he took Athens itself, ending the Peloponnesian war, and establishing Sparta's supremacy. The Spartan ephors had reason to dread Lysander's popularity and ambition; but he fell at Haliartus in the Boeotian war (395). See Latin monograph by Nitzsch (1847).

Lysias (c. 450-380 B.C.), Greek orator, was the son of a rich Syracusan, who settled in Athens about 440. He was educated at Thurii in Italy. The Thirty Tyrants in 404 stripped him and his brother Polemarchus of their wealth, and killed Polemarchus. The first use to which Lysias put his eloquence was, on the fall of the Thirty (403), to prosecute Eratosthenes, the tyrant chiefly to blaine for his brother's murder. He then prac tised with success as a writer of speeches for litigants. From his thirty-four surviving speeches we see that Lysias is delightfully lucid in thought and expression, and strong in character drawing. See Jebb's Attic Orators.

Lysimachus (c. 361-281 B.C.), a general of Alex. ander the Great's, afterwards king of Thrace.

Lysippus, of Sicyon, a prolific Greek sculptor, who flourished about 360-316 B.c. See German monograph by Löwy (1891).

Lysons, DANIEL (1762-1834), a clergyman, born in Gloucestershire, wrote The Environs of London (1792-96), &c.-His son, SAMUEL (1806-77), was a Gloucestershire rector and antiquary.

His

Lyte, HENRY FRANCIS, hymn-writer, born at Ednam near Kelso, 1st June 1793, entered Trinity College, Dublin; took orders in 1815; was for twenty-five years incumbent of Lower Brixham; and died at Nice, 20th November 1847. Poems, chiefly Religions (1833; reprinted as Miscellaneous Poems, 1868), are well-nigh forgotten; but Abide with me,' 'Pleasant are thy courts,' and other hymns keep his memory green. Life prefixed to his Remains (1850).

See

Lyttelton, George, Lord (1709–73), son of Sir Thomas Lyttelton of Hagley in Worcestershire, entered parliament in 1730, soon acquired eminence as a speaker, held several high political offices, and was raised to the peerage in 1759. His poetry gained him a place in Johnson's Lives of the Poets; his best-known prose works are on The Conversion and Apostleship of St Paul (1747), Dialogues of the Dead (1760), and History of Henry II. (1764). See Memoirs and Correspondence (1845).— His son, THOMAS, LORD LYTTELTON (1744-79), the wicked Lord Lyttelton,' died three days after a dream of a dove that changed into a white lady. The Poems by a Young Nobleman (1780) may partly at least have been his, but the Letters of the late Lord Lyttelton (1780-82) were probably by Combe ( Dr Syntax '). A Quarterly reviewer (1851) identified him with Junius.'

Lyttleton, SIR THOMAS. See LITTLETON.

Lytton, EDWARD BULWER, LORD, novelist, playwright, essayist, poet, and politician, was born in London, 25th May 1803. He was the third and youngest son of General Earle Bulwer

(1776-1807), of Heydon and Dalling in Norfolk, by Elizabeth Barbara Lytton (1773-1843), the heiress of Knebworth in Hertfordshire. As a child a devourer of books, his favourites Amadis de Gaul and the Faery Queen, he took early to rhyming, and went to school at nine, though not to a public one, but to six private tutors in succession (1812-21). In 1820 he published Ismael and other Poems, and about the same time was 'changed for life' by a tragic first love. At Trinity Hall, Cambridge (1822-25), he read English history, political economy, metaphysics, and early English literature; spoke much at the Union; carried off the Chancellor's gold medal for a poem upon Sculpture;' but took only a pass degree. His college life ended, he alternated awhile between Paris and London; and in London, in 1825, he met Rosina Wheeler (1802-82), a beautiful Irish girl, whom in 1827, despite his mother, he married. It was a most unhappy marriage. She bore him a daughter, Emily (1828-48), and a son, the future Earl of Lytton; in 1836 they separated. But his marriage called forth a marvellous literary activity, for the temporary estrangement from his mother threw him almost wholly on his own resources. He had only £200 a year, and he lived at the rate of £3000; the deficiency was supplied by his indefatigable industry. During the next ten years he produced twelve novels, two poems, one play, the whole of England and the English; Athens, its Rise and Fall, and all the essays and tales collected in the Student, to which must be added his untold contributions to the Edinburgh, Westminster, New Monthly (of which he became editor in 1831), Examiner, &c. His Wertherian Falkland (1827) gave little promise of the brilliant success of Pelham (1828). No two readers agree on the relative merit of his books, but certainly Pelham is better than Paul Clifford (1830), an idealisation of the highwayman, as Eugene Aram (1832) is of the murderer; most, however, will rank it as inferior to the Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834) or to one or another of his four historical novels-The Last Days of Pompeii (1834), Rienzi (1835), The Last of the Barons (1843), and Harold (1843). Then, there is his domestic trilogy, The Caxtons (1850), My Novel (1853), and What will he do with it? (1859); and Zanoni (1842), A Strange Story (1862), and, shorter but stronger than either, The Haunted and the Haunters (1859). Of his plays the Lady of Lyons (1838), Richelieu (1838), and Money (1840) still hold the stage; of his poems King Arthur (1848), and even St Stephens (1860) and the Lost Tales of Miletus (1866), will all be forgotten when the New Timon (1846) is still kept in remembrance by the savage answer it provoked from Tennyson. In 1831 he had entered parliament for St Ives, and attached himself to the Reform party; but Lincoln next year re turned him as a Protectionist Liberal, and that

MABLY

seat he held till 1841. In 1838 the Melbourne administration conferred on him a baronetcy; in 1844 he succeeded to the Knebworth estate, and assumed the surname of Lytton. He now sought to re-enter parliament, in 1847 contesting Lincoln unsuccessfully; in 1852 he was returned as Conservative member for Hertfordshire. Deafness hindered him from shining as a debater, but he made himself a successful orator. In the Derby government (1858-59) he was Colonial Secretary, and called into existence the colonies of British Columbia and Queensland. In 1866 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton. He died at Torquay, 18th January 1873, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Lord Lytton's works exceed sixty. To those already mentioned may be added The Disowned (1829), Devereux (1829), Godolphin (1833), Ernest Maltravers (1837), Alice (1837), Leila (1838), Night and Morning (1841), Lucretia (1846), Caxtoniana (1863), The Coming Race (anonymous, 1870), Kenelm Chillingly (1873), The Parisians (1874), and Pausanias the Spartan (unfinished, 1876). His Life, Letters, and Literary Remains (vols. i.-ii. 1883) comes down only to 1832, so must be supplemented by the political Memoir, also by his son, prefixed to the Speeches of Lord Lytton (1874).

Lytton, EDWARD ROBERT, EARL OF, poet, diplomatist, and statesman, was born in London, 8th November 1831, and was educated at Harrow and at Bonn. In 1849 he went to Washington as attaché and private secretary to his uncle, Sir Henry Bulwer (q.v.); and subsequently he was appointed attaché, secretary of legation, consul or chargé d'affaires at Florence (1852), Paris (1854), The Hague (1856), St Petersburg and Constantinople (1858), Vienna (1859), Belgrade (1860), Constantinople again (1863), Athens (1864), Lisbon (1865), Madrid (1868), Vienna again (1869), and Paris (1873). In the last year he succeeded his father as second Lord Lytton, and in 1874 became minister at Lisbon, in 1876 Viceroy of India, at the same time receiving the Grand Cross of the Bath. The chief events of his viceroyalty were the proclamation of the Queen as Empress of India (1877), and the outbreak (1879) of the Afghan war. In 1880 he resigned,

and was made Earl of Lytton; in 1887 he was sent as ambassador to Paris, and there he died 24th November 1891. His works, published mostly under the pseudonym of 'Owen Meredith,' include Clytemnestra (1855), a dramatic poem; The Wanderer (1859); Lucile (1860), a novel in verse; Serbski pesme (1861), 'translations from the Servian;' The Ring of Amasis (1863), a prose romance; Orval, or the Fool of Time (1869); Fables in Song (1874); Glenaveril (1885), an epic of modern life; After Paradise (1887); Marah (1892); and King Poppy (1892). A selection from his Poems by Miss M. Betham-Edwards appeared in 1890.

AARTENS, MAARTEN, the pen-name of J. M. M. van der Poorten Schwarz, born at Amsterdam, 15th Aug. 1858, who, having spent part of his boyhood in England and been at school in Germany, studied law at Utrecht University. He is the author of a series of powerful novels in nervous English, including The Sin of Joost Avelingh (1889), A Question of Taste (1892), God's Fool (1893), The Greater Glory (1894), and My Lady Nobody (1895). Mabillon, JEAN (1632-1707), born at St Pierremont in Champagne, in 1653 entered the Benedic

tine order, in 1663 became keeper of the monuments at St Denis, and from 1664 worked in the abbey of St Germain-des-Prés at Paris, where he died. He edited St Bernard's works (1667); and wrote a history of his order (1668-1702), De Re Diplo matica (1681), Vetera Analecta (1675-85), Musæum Italicum (1687-89), &c. See books by Ruinart (1709), Chavin de Malan (1843), Jadart (1879), E. de Broglie (1888), and Bäumer (Augsb. 1892).

Mably, GABRIEL BONNOT DE (1709-85), born at Grenoble, the elder brother of Condillac, for a time was secretary to the minister Cardinal

Mabuse, JAN (real name GOSSAERT), Flemish painter, was born at Maubeuge (Mabuse) about 1470, in 1503 entered the painters' guild of St Luke at Autwerp, and was influenced by Memling and Quentin Matsys. In 1508-9 he accompanied Philip of Burgundy to Italy, and returned with his style greatly modified by the Italian masters. Drunken but sumptuous, he lived latterly at Middelburg, but died at Antwerp, 1st Oct. 1532. His works embrace mythological and religious subjects and portraits. [Ma-bees'.]

McAdam, JOHN LOUDON, inventor of the 'macadamising 'system of road-making, was born at Ayr, 21st Sept. 1756. He went to New York in 1770, became a successful merchant, and on his return to Scotland in 1783 bought the estate of Sauchrie, Ayrshire. Beginning in 1810 experiments in road-making, in 1816 he was ap pointed surveyor to the Bristol Turnpike Trust, and re-made the roads there cheaply and well. His advice was now sought in all directions. Impoverished through his labours, he petitioned parliament in 1820, and in 1823 was voted £10,000, in 1827 appointed Surveyor-general of Metropolitan Roads. He died 26th Nov. 1836. He pub. Îished three books on road-making (1819-22).

McAll, ROBERT WHITAKER (1821-93), a Presbyterian minister, founder in 1871 of the Mission Populaire Evangélique de France. See Life (Rel. Tract Soc. 1896).

Macalpine, JOHN. See MACHABEUS.

Macartney, GEORGE, EARL, born at Lissanoure near Belfast, 14th May 1737, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1764 was knighted and sent as an envoy to Russia, in 176972 was Chief-secretary of Ireland, and in 1775 was governor of Grenada. There, having three years before been made Lord Macartney in the Irish peerage, he was in 1779 compelled, after an honourable defence, to surrender to Count d'Estaing, and was carried prisoner of war to France. Governor of Madras 1781-86, in 1792 he was made an earl and headed the first diplomatic mission to China. After undertaking a mission to Louis XVIII. at Verona (1795-96), he went out as governor to the Cape; but ill-health compelled him to return in 1798. He died at Chiswick, 31st March 1806. See Life by Sir J. Barrow (1807).

Macaulay, CATHARINE, née SAWBRIDGE (173191), born at Wye in Kent, married in 1760 George Macaulay, M. D., and in 1778, after twelve years of widowhood, a youthful William Graham. early Radical, she wrote a History of England, 1685-1715 (8 vols. 1763-83).

An

Macaulay, JAMES, M.D., born in Edinburgh, 22d May 1817, and educated there at the Academy and university, in 1850 took to journalisin, and from 1858 to 1895 was editor of the Leisure Hour, &c.

Macaulay, THOMAS BABINGTON, LORD, was born of Scottish ancestry at Rothley Temple, Leicestershire, 25th October 1800. Zachary Macaulay (1768-1838), his father, had a somewhat chequered career as a West India merchant, but was best known as a philanthropist and member of the Claphamn Sect.' In 1812 young

MACAULAY

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Macaulay was sent to a private school at Little Shelford near Cambridge, moved in 1814 to Aspenden Hall in Hertfordshire, whence, an exceptionally precocious boy, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1818. He detested mathematics, but twice won the Chancellor's medal for English verse, and obtained a prize for Latin declamation. In 1821 he carried off the Craven, in 1822 took his B.A., and in 1824 was elected to a fellowship. He was one of the most brilliant disputants in the Union. Called to the bar in 1826, he had no liking for his profession-literature had irresistible attractions for him. In 1823 he became a contributor to Knight's Quarterly Magazine, in which appeared some of his best verses-Ivry, The Spanish Armada, and Naseby. In 1825 he was discovered by Jeffrey, and his famous article on Milton in the August number of the Edinburgh Review secured him a position in literature. nearly twenty years he was one of the most prolific of the writers to the Edinburgh, and far the most popular. In 1830 he entered parliament for the pocket-borough of Calne, and in the Reforin Bill debates his great powers as an orator were established. Commissioner, and then Secretary, to the Board of Control, he still wrote steadily for the Edinburgh, and made a great reputation as a conversationalist in society. Mainly for the sake of his family, impoverished by the father's devotion to philanthropy, he accepted the office of legal adviser to the Supreme Council of India, with a salary of £10,000, and sailed for Madras in 1834. He acted also as chairman of the committee of Public Instruction, and of the committee appointed to prepare a Penal Code and a Code of Criminal Procedure. In the former capacity he successfully counselled the teaching of European literature and science to the natives of India. In 1838 he returned to England. In 1839 he was elected member for Edinburgh, and next year entered Lord Melbourne's cabinet as Secretary at War. The Lays of Ancient Rome (1842) won an immense popularity; so too did his collected Essays (3 vols. 1843). His connec tion with the Edinburgh ceased in 1845; he had now commenced his History of England from the Accession of James II. Appointed Paymastergeneral of the Forces in 1846, he was re-elected for Edinburgh; but his support of the Maynooth Grant led to his defeat at the general election of 1847. In 1852 he was again returned for Edinburgh; in 1856 he retired. The first two volumes of his History appeared in 1848, and at once attained greater popularity than had ever fallen to a purely historical work; the next two followed in 1855, and an unfinished fifth volume was published in 1861. In 1849 he was elected Lord Rector of Glasgow University. In 1857 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Macaulay of Rothley. Among other honours was his nomination to the Prussian Order of Merit. For the Encyclopædia Britannica he wrote important articles on Atterbury, Bunyan, Goldsmith, Johnson, and Pitt. He died in his arm-chair at Holly Lodge, Kensington, 28th December 1859, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Macaulay's reputa tion is not what once it was-he has been convicted of historical inaccuracy, of sacrificing truth for the sake of epigram, of allowing personal dislike and Whig bias to distort his views of men and incidents. But as a picturesque narrator he has no rival. See his Life and Letters by his nephew, Sir G. O. Trevelyan (1876), Cotter Morison's Monograph (1882), an essay by John Morley (Critical Miscellanies, 1886), and a study by Taine (History of English Literature, vol. ii. 1871).