PREFACE. IKE its companion volume, our Gazetteer of the World, this Biographical Dictionary is based upon articles in Chambers's Encyclopædia. Hundreds, however, of little articles have been added the total number of persons treated of must a good deal exceed ten thousand. The world's Upper Ten Thousand these mainly; still, the lower, even the lowest, have not been wholly neglected. For we include assassins like Abd-ul-Hamid and Ravachol, knaves like Arthur Orton and Jabez Balfour, madmen like Herostratus and Nietzsche, impostors like Joseph Smith and Madame Blavatsky, traitors like Pickle the Spy and Benedict Arnold, tagrag and bobtail-every other page offers examples. Whilst including many more names than any encyclopædia that ever has been or ever is likely to be published, the Biographical Dictionary does not, of course, pretend to vie in their several departments with such monumental works as the 'Dictionary of National Biography' or 'Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American Biography,' which each to the Smiths alone devote nearly two hundred articles, against our fifty. Still, it has been our endeavour to take in all who may reasonably be looked for, and to admit none who will never be wanted to give all the little Somebodies and many of the great Nobodies, as well as Homer and Dante, Shakespeare and Tennyson, Raphael and Beethoven, Nelson and Napoleon, Washington and Wellington, Newton and Darwin, Joan of Arc and Jane Austen, Dickens and Thackeray, and the few more their compeers. Omissions there must be (the omitted will readily detect them); and there will of course be errata, which we shall be sorry and glad to get notice of, with a view to future revision. Some features of our Dictionary may be glanced at. First, though in only one volume, it is not so short after all: it contains as much letterpress, roughly, as three whole volumes of the 'Dictionary of National Biography.' Next, alone of works of its size, it furnishes ample references to biographies, autobiographies, criticisms, and such-like; so that the reader who wants to know more about (say) Lord Roberts than we could contrive to tell in thirty-three lines may proceed to Lord Roberts's 'Forty-one Years in India.' Under Mary Queen of Scots there are cited twenty-eight authorities, under Raleigh twelve, under Shakespeare PREFACE. forty-three, under Tennyson twenty-five. Thirdly, the Dictionary gives the exact or approximate pronunciation of all the more difficult names, so that its readers will have no excuse for speaking of the 'Madonna' of Simmabew (Cimabue), Goeeth's 'Faust,' Walter Bajot's 'Studies,' Dr Sashvrell's impeachment, or General Toddleben's victories. Fourthly, it has been written on parallel lines to the Gazetteer, and topographically is much more precise than biographical dictionaries are wont to be. For instance, the birthplace of Lord Dundonald has till now been everywhere given as 'Annsfield in Lanarkshire'-a place unrecognised by even the Postal County Directory. Annsfield, Hamilton,' say we; and the reader knows then where Scotland's great naval hero was born. Fifthly, it gives as an appendix a useful index of pseudonyms, nicknames, &c., so that the reader may know where to look for the 'Stagirite,' the 'Child of Miracle,' 'Delta,' 'Lucas Malet,' 'Lavengro,' the 'Corn-law Rhymer,' the 'victor of Barossa,' 'Tusitala,' the author of 'Mark Rutherford,' &c. Lastly, we have attempted to bring the work well up to date.' By which is meant not so much that its pages are freely besprinkled with such obvious recent occurrences as the Diamond Jubilee, the assassination of Señor Canovas, the balloon voyage of Andrée, the first crossing of Spitzbergen, the drowning of Barney Barnato, the capture of Sir Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett by the Greeks, or the publication of 'The Christian.' No; rather we mean fresh light has been brought to bear on such old-world themes as Bacchylides, Solon, Bartholomew de Glanville, the Cabots, Vespucci, Vitruvius, Basil Valentine, Sir Cloudesley Shovel, the brothers Abbadie on the first page, and Ulric Zwingli on the last. The only points on which we are conscious of being behind the times are the deaths of General Bourbaki on 18th September, of Sir John Gilbert at Blackheath on 5th October, of Prof. F. W. Newman at Weston-super-Mare on 4th October, of George M. Pullman at Chicago on 19th October, of Dr John Stoughton on 24th October, of Prof. F. T. Palgrave on the 25th, and of Don Pascual Gayangos at London, Sir P. Le Page Renouf at London, Charles A. Dana at New York, and Neal Dow, all four also in this current month of October. And in this connection it seems worth while to point out how easily any possessor of the Dictionary may keep the same up to date by entering on the margin the death of suchand-such a person, the publication of this or that new book, any important occurrence connected with the subject of an article, and so on. To thank separately all the people who have furnished details about themselves and others would but swell the bulk of a volume already bulky. 25th October 1897. CHAMBERS'S BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. AALI PASHA ALI PASHA (1815-71), Turkish statesman and reformer, rose steadily from one diplomatic post to another at home and abroad, until in 1842-45 he was ambassador at London. Afterwards he was Grand-vizier more than once, though never for long at a time. Aasen, IVAR ANDREAS (1803-96), Norwegian poet, lived and died at Christiania. Abancourt, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH D' (175892), minister to Louis XVI., and a nephew of Calonne, was murdered by the mob at Versailles. Abarbanel, ISAAC BEN JEHUDAH (1437-1508), a Jewish writer, was born at Lisbon and died at Venice. His works comprise commentaries on the Bible and philosophical treatises.-His eldest son, JUDA LEON (LEO HEBRÆUS), a doctor and philosopher, wrote Dialoghi di Amore (1535). Abati. See ABBATE. Abauzit, FIRMIN (1679-1767), born of Protestant parentage at Uzès in Languedoc, on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) was despatched by his mother to Geneva, where he became versed in almost all the sciences. He travelled in Holland and England in 1698, attracting the notice of Bayle and Sir Isaac Newton, who corresponded with him. He died at Geneva, having published many theological and archæological treatises (2 vols. Amst. 1773). Rousseau, who hated to praise a contemporary, penned his solitary panegyric on Abauzit in the Nouvelle Héloïse. [Ah-bo-zee'.] Abb, ST. See EBBA. Abbadie, ANTOINE THOMSON D' (1810-97), and MICHEL ARNAUD D' (1815-93), born in Dublin of French family, were educated in France, and both travelled in Abyssinia during 1837-48. To the elder brother we owe Geodésie d'Ethiopie (186013) and Geographie de l'Éthiopie (1890); to the younger, Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie (1868). Abbas (566-652 A.D.), the uncle of Mohammed, at first hostile to him, but ultimately the chief promoter of his religion. He was the founder of the Abbasides, who ruled as califs of Bagdad from 750 till the Mongol conquest in 946. Abbas Hilmi, born 14th July 1874, was edu ABBOT cated at Vienna, and in 1892 succeeded his father, Tewfik, as khedive of Egypt. Abbas-Mirza (c. 1783-1833), the favourite son of Shah Feth-Ali, led the Persian armies with great bravery, but with little success, in the wars with Russia (1811-13 and 1826-28). Abbas Pasha (1813-54), viceroy of Egypt, in 1841 took an active part in the Syrian war of his grandfather, Mehemet Ali. The death of his uncle, Ibrahim Pasha, in 1848, called him to the throne; bigoted and sensual, he did much to undo the progress made under Mehemet Ali. Abbate, NICCOLO DELL' (1512-71), a frescopainter of Modena, who died in Paris. [Ab'ba-teh.] Abbe, CLEVELAND, American meteorologist, born in New York, 3d December 1838. [Ab'beh.] Abbey, EDWIN AUSTIN, A.R.A. (1896), subjectpainter, was born at Philadelphia, U.S., April 1, 1852, but settled in England in 1878. Abbot, EZRA (1819-84), an American scholar and biblical critic, who in 1856 became assistantlibrarian at Harvard University, and in 1872 professor of New Testament Criticism. Abbot, GEORGE, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born, the son of a Guildford cloth-worker, 29th October 1562. In his seventeenth year he entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship (1583); and through Lord Buckhurst's influence he rose to be Master of University College (1597), Dean of Winchester (1600), and thrice Vice-chancellor of Oxford University (1600-5). To a new patron, the Earl of Dunbar, with whom he visited Scotland (1608), he owed his promotion to the sees of Lichfield (1609), London (1610), and finally Canterbury (1611). A sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist, he was equally opposed to Catholics and to heretics. He fined two recusants, he burnt two Arians, he consented that a clergyman should be put to the torture; but, withal, he was charitable, and far less obsequions to the kingly will than most of his compeers. His closing years were clouded by an accident, the shooting of a gamekeeper (1621); and during the last six he was alinost superseded by Laud. He died at Croydon, 4th ABBOT August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, where in 1619 he had founded a hospital.-His brother, ROBERT (1560-1617), from 1615 Bishop of Salisbury, was a learned theologian. Abbot. See COLCHESTER, Lord. Abbott, CHARLES. See TENTErden, Lord. Abbott, EDWIN ABBOTT, D.D., Broadchurch theologian and Shakespearian scholar, was born in London, 20th Dec. 1838, and from the City of London School passed in 1857 to St John's College, Cambridge. Senior classic and chancellor's medallist (1861), he became a fellow, master at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at Clifton College, and head-inaster (1865-89) of the City of London School. His works include the wellknown Shakespearian Grammar (1870); Through Nature to Christ (1877); Bacon and Essex (1877); Philochristus (1878) and Onesimus (1882), two anonymous romances of the first age of the church; Francis Bacon (1885); The Kernel and the Husk (1887); Philomythus (1891); Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman (1892); and The Spirit on the Waters (1897). Abbott, JACOB (1803-79), author of The Young Christian and innumerable other works, was born at Hallowell, Me., and died at Farmington, Me.His son, LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D., Congregational minister and author, was born at Roxbury, Mass., 18th December 1835, and in 1887 succeeded Henry Ward Beecher.-A younger brother of Jacob's, JOHN STEPHENS CABOT, was born in 1805 at Brunswick, Me., studied at Bowdoin and Andover, was minister in Worcester and Roxbury, and died at Fair Haven, Conn., 17th June 1877. He published many historical works. Abbott, SIR JAMES (1807-96), born at Blackheath, at sixteen joined the Bengal Artillery; in 1839-40 rode from Herat to Khiva-the first Englishman there-and the Caspian; served splendidly in Hazara 1846-53; came home a majorgeneral in 1867; and was made a K.C.B. in 1894. Abd-al-Rahman. See ABD-ER-RAHMAN. Abd-el-Kader, Algerian hero, was born at Mascara in 1807, and, the scion of a priestly house that traced back to the Fatimide califs, was carefully educated. His public career dates from the conquest of Algiers by the French. No sooner was the power of the Turks broken than the Arab tribes of Oran elected him as their emir; and with marvellous perseverance and strategic skill he waged his long struggle with the French 183247. In 1834 he forced Gen. Desinichels to a treaty; and in June 1835 he severely defeated a large French army at Makta. Spite of his heroism, he was crushed by overpowering force, and compelled to take refuge in Morocco. Here he got up a crusade against the enemies of Islam; but Bugeaud's decisive victory at Isly in 1844 obliged the sultan of Morocco to give up the cause of Abd-el-Kader, who had at length to retreat into Algeria, and surrender to General Lamoricière, Dec. 22, 1847. He was sent with his family to France, where he lived in honourable captivity, until liberated in 1852 by Louis Napoleon. He afterwards resided at Broussa in Asia Minor, Constantinople, and finally Damascus, where, enjoying a French pension of 100,000 francs, and composing religious and philosophical works, he died 26th May 1883. See Life by Churchill (Lond. 1867). Abd-er-Rahman, (1) leader of the Saracens in their defeat at Tours (where he fell) by Charles Martel in 732.-(2) The first Ommiad calif of Cordova (755-788).-(3) Grandson of Dost Mohamin 1830, who had for ten years been me a pensioner of Russia, when, in 1880, he was made by British influence Ameer of Afghanistan. His second son, Nasrullah Kkan, visited England in 1895. See Life by Wheeler (1895)-(4) Sultan of Fez and Morocco, succeeded his uncle in 1823. Abd-el-Kader's war against the French in Algeria involved the sultan in its movements, but was concluded by the battle of Isly (1844) and the mediation of England. His subjects' piratical habits brought Abd-er-Rahman to the brink of war with more than one European state. Abd-ul-Aziz (1830-76), Sultan of Turkey, succeeded his brother, Abd-ul-Medjid, in 1861. At first he showed himself liberal-minded and open to western ideas; but presently his misgovernment alienated the provinces, and led, in 1875, to risings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria. At last a conspiracy forced him to abdicate; and five days later he was found dead. Abd-ul-Hamid II., Sultan of Turkey, born 22d September 1842, second son of Sultan Abd-ulMedjid, succeeded in 1876, on the deposition of his brother, Murad V. The chief events of his reign were the unsuccessful war with Russia (1877-78); the Armenian atrocities (1894-96), which earned him the title of the Great Assassin;' the rising in Crete (1895-96); and the successful war with Greece (1897). See Sir R. Davey's The Sultan and his Subjects (1897). Abd-ul-Latif (1162-1231), an Arabian writer, who was born and died at Bagdad, but taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and Damascus. His best-known book is a descriptive work on Egypt, translated into Latin by White (Oxford, 1800), and into French by De Sacy (1810). Abd-ul-Medjid (1823-61), Sultan of Turkey, succeeded his father, Mahmud II., in 1889. He continued the reforms of the previous reign; was saved from Egyptian aggression by the Christian powers; in 1850 refused chivalrously to give up Kossuth; and played a difficult part well during the Crimean war (1854-56); but thereafter allowed affairs to drift into financial ruin. Abd-ur-Rahman. See ABD-ER-RAHMAN. A Beckett, GILBERT ABBOTT, born in London, 9th January 1811, and educated at Westminster, in 1841 was called to the bar, in 1849 became a metropolitan police-magistrate, and died at Boulogne, 30th August 1856. Besides writing for Punch, the Times, &c., he was author of Quizziology of the British Drama, The Comic Blackstone, and Comic Histories of England and Rome, the second illustrated by Cruikshank, the last two by Leech.-One son, GILBERT (1837-91), was a playwright; and another, ARTHUR WILLIAM, born at Hammersmith, 25th October 1844, has been journalist, playwright, novelist, and barrister. Abel, SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, chemist, was born in London in 1826, and devoted himself to the science of explosives, expounding his discoveries in Gun-cotton (1866), Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes (1884), &c. He has been chemist to the War Department and Ordnance Committees, and was made C.B. 1877, K.C. B. and D.C.L. 1883, and a baronet 1893. He became secretary to the Imperial Institute in 1887, and was president of the British Association in 1890. Abel, KARL FRIEDRICH (1725-87), a German player on the viol-da-gamba and composer. In 1758 he came to England, where he was appointed chamber-musician to Queen Charlotte. Abel, NIELS HENRIK (1802-29), a Norwegian mathematician, occupied mainly with the theory ABEL of elliptical functions. See Life by Bjerknes (Fr. trans. 1885). Abel, Orro (1824-54), German historian. Abelard, or Abailard, PETER, the keenest thinker and boldest theologian of the 12th century, was born at Le Pallet, 10 miles SE. of Nantes, in 1079, the eldest son of a noble Breton house. He studied under Roscellin, in 1115 became a lecturer in the cathedral school of Notre-Dame; and for a few years he enjoyed extraordinary repute and influence. Among his pupils were Peter Lombard, Berengar, and Arnold of Brescia. But within the precincts of Notre-Dame lived the beautiful Heloise, niece of the canon Fulbert, then seventeen years of age; and with her Abelard, thirty-eight years of age and acting as her tutor, fell passionately in love. The lovers fled together to Brittany, where Heloise bore a son, and was privately married to Abelard. When shortly after Heloise, denying the marriage (lest it should stand in Abelard's way), left her uncle's house for the convent of Argenteuil, Fulbert caused Abelard to be mutilated so as to be incapable of ecclesiastical preferment. Abelard entered the abbey of St Denis as monk; Heloise took the veil at Argenteuil. Ere long a synod at Soissons (1121) condemned his teaching on the Trinity as heretical. In the hermit's hut at Nogent-sur-Seine to which he retired, Abelard was soon again besieged by importunate disciples; the hermitage became a monastic school known as Paraclete, which, when Abelard was invited to become abbot of St Gildas-de-Rhuys in Brittany, was given to Héloïse and a sisterhood. In his abbey Abelard maintained for ten years a struggle with disorderly and unfriendly monks, and at last fled to Clugny, where he lived, a model of asceticism and theological labour, and recanted some of the doctrines that had given most offence. Again, however, his adversaries, headed by Bernard of Clairvaux (q.v.), accused him of numerous heresies, of which he was found guilty by a council at Sens and by the pope. On his way to Rome to defend himself he died at the priory of St Marcel, near Châlon, 21st April 1142. His remains were buried by Heloise at Paraclete, where hers were afterwards laid beside them; and thence the ashes of both were taken to Paris in 1800, and in 1817 were buried in one sepulchre at Père la Chaise, where still they lie. Abelard was a conceptualist rather than a nominalist, and in theology was held to be rationalistic. His ethical system he set down in the work Nosce teipsum. Sic et Non is a curious collection of contradictions from the works of the Fathers. His Historia Calamitatum Mearum forms the subject of a remarkable drama by Bemusat; and the still extant correspondence between Abelard and Heloise suggested to Pope his Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard. The best edition of Abelard's works is by Cousin (2 vols. 1849-59). His work on the Trinity, long lost, was published by Stolzle in 1891. See monographs by Rémusat (Paris, 1845), Wilkens (Göttingen, 1855), Carriere (Giessen, 1853), Deutsch (Leip. 1883), and Compayre (Eng. trans. 1893). Abencerra'ges, a noble Moorish family which came to Spain in the 8th century, and is said to have suffered tragical destruction in the Alhambra under Abu Hassan (1466–84). Aben-Ezra (1093-1168), born at Toledo, was one of the most learned Jews of his time, distinguished in philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. He visited France, Egypt, and England, and passed his later years in Roine. Abercorn. See HAMILTON. Abercrombie, JOHN, born in 1780 at Aberdeen, took his M.D. in Edinburgh (1803), and, establishing a practice there, after Dr Gregory's death (1821) was recognised as the first consulting physician in Scotland. He is best known by his superficial works on The Intellectual Powers (1830) and The Moral Feelings (1833). He died suddenly, November 14, 1844. Abercromby, SIR RALPH, was born at Menstrie, Clackmannanshire, 7th October 1734. Educated at Rugby, from 1752 to 1755 he studied law at Edinburgh and Leipzig, but in 1756 obtained a cornetcy in the Dragoons, and two years later served in the Seven Years' War. From 1774 to 1780 he was M.P. for Clackmannanshire; in 1793 he accompanied the Duke of York to Holland, His conduct throughout that disastrous campaign won him the admiration of the whole artny. Made a Knight of the Bath, he was appointed to the chief command of the West Indies Expedition, which he conducted with distinguished success. In 1797 he was sent to command the forces in Ireland; but his remonstrances against the policy of government towards that country occasioned his removal to a similar command in Scotland. In 1799 he was second in command to the Duke of York in the other unhappy expedition to Holland. On his return, he received the command of the expedition to the Mediterranean. The fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay on 2d March 1801; and before mid-day of the 8th, the British troops were in possession of the sandhills which command the shore, having landed in the face of a storm of shot. On the 21st, Menou, the French commander, attempted vainly to surprise the British camp. In the glorious action that ensued, Abercromby was struck by a musket-ball in the thigh; and on the 28th he died on board the flagship. He was buried at Malta, and a monument was erected to him in St Paul's. The peerage conferred on his widow was afterwards enjoyed by his eldest son, with the title of Baron Abercromby.-His second son, General Sir JOHN ABERCROMBY (1772-1817), captured Mauritius in 1809.-His third son, JAMES (1776-1858), entered parliament in 1807, held the office of Speaker (1835-39), and was then created Baron Dunfermline. He wrote a Memoir of his father's last eight years (1861). Aberdare, HENRY AUSTIN BRUCE, LORD, born at Duffryn, Glamorganshire, 16th April 1815, was called to the bar in 1837, and in 1852 was returned by Merthyr-Tydvil as a Liberal. Home Secretary under Gladstone in 1868, he was raised to the peerage in 1873, and was Lord President of the Council in 1873-74. He died 25th February 1895. Aberdeen, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, EARL OF, born at Edinburgh, 28th January 1784, was educated at Harrow; in 1801 succeeded to the earldom; made a tour through Greece; and took his M. A. from St John's College, Cambridge (1804). In 1806 he was elected a Scotch representative peer; in 1813-14 was ambassador to Vienna; and in 1828 became Foreign Secretary in the new Wellington ministry. The general principle which guided his policy was that of non-intervention, which, joined to his well-known sympathy with Metternich, exposed him to the suspicion of hostility to popular liberty. His gradual abandonment of high Tory principles was evinced by his support of the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, and of the Catholic Emancipation Act. In 1841 he again became Foreign Secretary, his chief services as such being the conclusion of the |