HUNT

Pollard,' 'Wild Flowers,' 'Too Hot,' 'Fast Asleep,' &c. He died 10th February 1864.

Hunt, WILLIAM HOLMAN, painter, was born in London, 2d April 1827. In 1845 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy, and next year he exhibited his first picture, Hark! followed by scenes from Dickens and Scott, and by the Flight of Madeline and Porphyro (1848). He shared a studio with D. G. Rossetti, and the pair, along with Millais and a few others, inaugurated the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood,' which aimed at detailed and uncompromising truth to nature. The first of his Pre-Raphaelite works was 'Rienzi' (1849). It was followed by 'A Converted British Family sheltering a Christian Missionary' (1850), Valentine rescuing Sylvia (1851), The Hireling Shepherd' (1852), and Claudio and Isabella' (1853)-works very fresh and original in conception; while 'Our English Coasts,' known also as 'Strayed Sheep' (1853), was a remarkable effort in landscape art. The Light of the World' (1854), one of the most impressive symbolical works of the century, is now in the chapel of Keble College, Oxford. The awakened Conscience' aimed to point a moral by means of a scene from modern life. In 1854 Mr Hunt started for Palestine to study Eastern life and realise the incidents of biblical history with the closest possible accuracy of local colouring. The result of several visits to the East appeared in 'The Scapegoat' (1856); The Finding of Christ in the Temple' (1860), now in the Birmingham Art Gallery; The Shadow of Death' (1874), in the Corporation Gallery, Manchester; and 'The Triumph of the Innocents' (1885), to which must be added 'Isabella and the Pot of Basil' (1867) and May Day, Magdalen Tower' (1891). In 1881 he painted a portrait of Sir Richard Owen; in 1886 contributed to the Contemporary a series of autobiographical papers. See the Art Annual for 1893.

Hunter, COLIN, a painter of fisher-folk, was born in Glasgow, 16th July 1841, and brought up at Helensburgh; in 1884 he was elected an A. R. A.

Hunter, JOSEPH (1783-1861), historian of Hallamshire, Shakespearean scholar, &c., born at Sheffield, was a Presbyterian minister at Bath 1809-33, and then entered the Record Office.

Hunter, WILLIAM, anatomist and obstetrician, was born at Long Calderwood, East Kilbride, 23d May 1718. He studied five years at Glasgow University with a view to the church, but in 1737 took up medicine, and, coming up to London from Edinburgh in 1741, was trained in anatomy at St George's Hospital and elsewhere. From about 1748 he confined his practice to midwifery; in 1764 was appointed physician-extraordinary to Queen Charlotte; in 1767 was elected an F.R.S.; and in 1768 became professor of Anatomy to the Royal Academy. In 1770 he built a house with an amphitheatre for lectures, a dissecting-room, a museum, and a cabinet of medals and coins. He died 30th March 1783. His museum was bequeathed finally, with an endowment of £8000, to Glasgow University. His chief work was on the uterus. His brother, JOHN, physiologist and surgeon, was born at Long Calderwood, 13th February 1728. He became his brother's assistant in the dissecting-room (1748), studied surgery at Chelsea Hospital and St Bartholomew's, and in 1754 entered St George's Hospital, becoming housesurgeon in 1756 and lecturer for his brother in the anatomical school. In 1759 his health gave way, and in 1760 he entered the army as staff-surgeon, and served in the expedition to Belleisle and Portugal. At the peace in 1763 he started the

practice of surgery in London, and devoted much time and money to comparative anatomy. In 1767 he was elected F.R.S., and in 1768 was appointed surgeon to St George's Hospital. In 1776 he was appointed surgeon-extraordinary to the king. In 1785 he built his museum, with lecture-rooms, and tried his famous operation for the cure of aneurisin. In 1786 he was appointed deputy-surgeon-general to the army. He died 16th October 1793, and was buried in the church of St-Martin's-in-the-Fields, whence, thanks to Frank Buckland, his remains were translated in March 1859 to Westminster Abbey. Hunter's collection, containing 10,563 specimens, was purchased by government in 1795 for £15,000, and presented to the Royal College of Surgeons. He married in 1771 ANNE HOME (17421821), author of 'My mother bids me bind my hair and other songs set to music by Haydn. In addition to the numerous papers to the Transactions, he published books on the human teeth (1771-78), on venereal disease (1786), and A Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gunshot Wounds (1794). See the edition of his works by Palmer (1835), with prefixed Life by Otley, and Dr Mather's Two Great Scotsmen (1894).

Hunter, SIR WILLIAM WILSON, statistician, born 15th July 1840, studied at Glasgow, Paris, and Bonn, and in 1862 entered the civil service of India. His post as superintendent of public instruction in Orissa (1866-69) gave him the opportunity to write the Annals of Rural Bengal (1868) and A Comparative Dictionary of the Non-Aryan Languages of India (1868). Then, after being secretary to the Bengal government and the government of India, he in 1871 became director-general of the statistical department of India; the Indian census of 1872 was his first work. In 1887 he retired and returned home. Among his works are Imperial Gazetteer of India (9 vols. 1881; 14 vols. 1880-88), Orissa (1872), Life of Lord Mayo (1875), Statistical Account of Assam (1880), Indian Mussulmans (1871; 3d ed. 1876), The Indian Empire; its People, History, and Products (1882; 3d ed. 1893), The Old Missionary (1895), a pathetic romance, and a Life of Bryan Hodgson (1896). He was one of the first recipients of the Star of India in 1878, and in 1887 was knighted. In 1890-95 he edited the Rulers of India, contributing a Life of Dalhousie.

Huntingdon, SELINA, COUNTESS OF, the second of three daughters of Washington Shirley, second Earl Ferrers, was born August 24, 1707, married the Earl of Huntingdon in 1728, and became a widow in 1746. Joining the Methodists in 1739, she made Whitefield (q.v.) her chaplain in 1748, and assumed a leadership among his followers, who became known as The Countess of Huntingdon's Connection.' For the education of ministers she established in 1768 a college at Trevecca in Brecknockshire (removed in 1792 to Cheshunt, Herts), and built or bought numerous chapels, the principal one at Bath. She died in London, June 17, 1791, bequeathing to four persons her sixty-four chapels, most of which became identical with the Congregational churches. See Life (2 vols. 1839-40).

Huntington, DANIEL, historical and religious and portrait painter, was born in New York, 14th October 1816, and first visited Italy in 1839.

Huntington, WILLIAM, S.S., i.e. 'Sinner Saved' (1745-1813), bastard, tramp, coalheaver, preacher, prophet, &c., was born at Four Wents near Cranbrook, and died at Tunbridge Wells.

Huntly. See GORDON.

Hun'yady Janos. John Corvinus Hunyady, one of the greatest war-captains of his age, apparently a Wallach by birth, was knighted and in 1409 presented by the Emperor Sigismund with the Castle of Hunyad in Transylvania. His life was one unbroken crusade against the Turks, its chief events his expulsion of them from Transylvania in 1442; his brilliant campaign south of the Danube in 1443; his defeats at Varna and Kossovo, 1444-48; and his glorious storming of Belgrade (1456). Shortly afterwards (11th August) Hunyady died of dysentery. During the minority of Ladislaus V. he acted as governor of the kingdom (1445-53). Hunyady left two sons, Ladislaus and Matthias; the former was beheaded on a charge of conspiracy by Ladislaus V.; the latter succeeded to the crown of Hungary.

Hurd, RICHARD, prelate and writer, named the 'Beauty of Holiness' on account of his comeliness and piety, was born at Congreve, Staffordshire, January 13, 1720, and became a fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1742. In 1750 he became a Whitehall preacher, in 1774 Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and in 1781 of Worcester. He died May 28, 1808. Among his works are Commentary on Horace's Ars Poetica (1749); Dissertations on Poetry (1755-57); Dialogues on Sincerity, &c. (1759), his most popular book; Letters on Chivalry and Romance (1762); Dialogues on Foreign Travel (1764); and An Introduction to the Prophecies (1772). See Hurd's Works (8 vols. 1811) and Memoir by Kilvert (1860).

Hurtado, LUIS (c. 1530-98), Spanish poet, romancer, and playwright, was born at Toledo.

Huskisson, WILLIAM, born at Birts Morton Court, Worcestershire, 11th March 1770, in 1783-92 was in Paris, in 1795 was appointed Under-secretary in the Colonial Department. Next year he entered parliament for Morpeth as a supporter of Pitt. Returned for Liskeard in 1804, he became Secretary of the Treasury; and held the same office under the Duke of Portland (1807-9). In 1814 he became Commissioner of the Woods and Forests, in 1823 President of the Board of Trade and treasurer of the navy, and in 1827 Colonial Secretary. But he resigned office finally in 1828. He obtained the removal of restrictions on the trade of the colonies with foreign countries, the removal or reduction of many import duties, and relaxation of the navigation laws, and was an active pioneer of free trade. He received fatal injuries at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 15th September 1830. See Life prefixed to his Speeches (3 vols. 1831).

Huss, or Hus, JOHN, Bohemian reformer, was born about 1369, the son of a Bohemian peasant, at Husinetz (of which Hus is a contraction) near Prachatitz. In 1398, two years after taking his master's degree at Prague, he began to lecture there on theology. He had come under the influence of Wyclif's writings, probably through Anne of Bohemia's retinue. In 1402 he was appointed rector of the university, and began to preach at the Bethlehem chapel; in 1408 he was forbidden to exercise priestly functions within the diocese. In 1409 Huss was re-elected rector, but the archbishop commissioned an inquisitor to investigate the charges of heretical teaching against him. And in connection with this in December Pope Alexander V. promulgated a bull condemning Wyclif's teaching, ordered all his writings to be publicly burned, and forbade preaching in any except collegiate, parish, and monastery churches. As Huss continued preaching, he

HUTCHINSON

was in July excommunicated. Popular riots followed, and Huss, backed by the people, still maintained his position; nor did he yield even after the city was laid under papal interdict in 1411. But by 1413 matters had greatly changed, Huss having spoken out yet more boldly against the church; hence some of his more influential supporters, including the university, had fallen away from him, and on the advice of King Wenceslaus of Bohemia he left Prague. He found refuge at the castles of his supporters, for nearly the whole of the nobles were with him. This enforced leisure he employed chiefly in the composition of his principal work, De Ecclesia, which, like many of Huss's minor writings, contains numerous passages taken almost verbatim from Wyclif. About this time a general council was summoned to meet at Constance, and Huss was called upon to present himself before it. Provided with a 'safe conduct' from the Emperor Sigismund, he reached Constance on 3d November 1414. Three weeks later he was seized and thrown into prison. No precise charge had been lodged against him; but he had resumed preaching in Constance. An ill augury for Huss was the condemnation of Wyclif's writings by the council in May 1415. His own trial began on 5th

June following; but he was not permitted to speak freely in his own defence, nor allowed to have a defender. Called upon to recant unconditionally, and to pledge himself not to teach the doctrines that were put in accusation against him, Huss categorically refused, and was burned on 6th July. The rage of his followers in Bohemia led to the bloody Hussite wars, in which the two parties of Hussites under such leaders as Ziska and Podiebrad more than held their own in many battles with all the forces of the empire. They were not reduced till about the middle of the century. See works by Denis (French, 1878), Wratislaw (English, 1882), Loserth (1884; Eng. trans. 1884), and Lechler (German, 1890).

Hutcheson, FRANCIS, philosopher, son of an Armagh Presbyterian minister, was born 8th August 1694. He studied for the church at Glasgow 1710-16, but then started a successful private academy in Dublin. His Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, &c. (1720), attracted much notice; it was followed by his Essay on the Passions (1728). In 1729 he was appointed professor of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow, where he died in 1746. His largest work is A System of Moral Philosophy (with a Life, 1755). Hutcheson was a pioneer of the Scottish School' in metaphysics; his ethical system is a development of Shaftesbury's. See Fowler's Shaftesbury and Hutcheson (1882), and a German monograph by Rampendahl (1892).

Hutchins, JOHN (1698-1773), the historian of Dorset, where he was born and for fifty years was a clergyman. His History (2 vols. 1774) has reached a 3d edition (4 vols. 1861-73).

Hutchinson, ANNE (c. 1590-1643), religious enthusiast, was the daughter of a Lincolnshire clergyman called Marbury. About 1612 she married a Mr Hutchinson, and in 1634 they emigrated from Lincolnshire to Boston, Mass., where she lectured and denounced the Massachusetts clergy as being 'under the covenant of works, not of grace.' Tried for heresy and sedition, and banished, she, with some friends, acquired territory from the Narragansett Indians of Rhode Island, and set up a democracy (1638). After her husband's death (1642) she removed to a new settlement in what is now New York state, where she and her family of

HUTCHINSON

fifteen persons were, all but one son, murdered by the Indians.

Hutchinson, COLONEL JOHN, the type of the Puritan gentleman, was baptised at Nottingham, 18th September 1615. He studied at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and Lincoln's Inn, and married in 1638 Lucy, daughter of Sir Allen Apsley. He retired to Owthorpe, his Nottinghamshire seat, and his meditations on the theology and politics of the time led him at last to side with the parliament. He became governor of Nottinghain, and successfully held the town in 1643-45. Returned in 1646 to parliament for Nottingham, he was one of King Charles's judges, and signed the warrant for his execution. He sat in the first council of state, but, alarmed at the ambitious schemes of Cromwell, ceased to take part in politics. At the Restoration he was included in the Act of Amnesty, but later was imprisoned in the Tower and at Sandown Castle on a groundless suspicion of treasonable conspiracy, and died 11th September 1664. The Memoirs, written by his widow for her children, and first published in 1806 (best edition by C. H. Firth, 1885), revealed a delightful picture of a grave and courteous gentleman, beautiful and accomplished, tender to his family and the poor, fearless, frank, and honest, intense in devotion, yet wholly free from austerity and fanaticism.

Hutchinson, JOHN (1674-1737), theological writer, born at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, was steward to the Duke of Somerset, but left his service to devote himself to religious studies, the duke procuring him a government sinecure of £200 a-year. In 1724 he published Moses' Principia, defending the Mosaic cosmogony and assailing Newton's theory of gravitation. His Thoughts concerning Religion affirm the Hutchinsonian' heresy that the Scriptures contain the elements not only of true religion, but of all rational philosophy; the original Hebrew' had to be strangely twisted to justify this theory. See Life by Spearman in Hutchinson's Works (13 vols. 1748-65).

Hutchinson, THOMAS JOSEPH (1820-85), an Irishman, from 1855 a consul in South America, who wrote on the Niger, Peru, Brittany, &c.

Hutchinson, WILLIAM (1732-1814), a Barnard Castle solicitor, author of the History of the County of Durham (1785), History of Cumberland (1794), &c. Hutchison, JOHN, sculptor, was born at Edinburgh, 1st June 1832, and was elected an A. R.S. A. in 1862, an R.S.A. in 1867.

Huth, HENRY (1815-78), a great London bookcollector, of German origin. [Hoot.]

Hutten, PHILIP VON (c. 1498-1546), adventurer, a cousin of Ulrich von Hutten. In 1528 Charles V. granted Venezuela to the Welsers, rich Augsburg merchants; Hutten sailed with one of their companies, and after various journeyings (1536-38) set out in 1541 in search of the Golden City. After several years of wandering, harassed by the natives, he and his followers were routed in an attack on a large Indian city. Severely wounded, he was conveyed back to Coro, and beheaded by a usurping viceroy. He left a narrative of his journeyings, published as Zeitung aus Indien (1765). See also Von Langegg's El Dorado (1888).

Hutten, ULRICH VON, born 21st April 1488 at the castle of Steckelberg, was sent in 1499 to the neighbouring Benedictine monastery of Fulda, but his imperious temper drove him to flee from it (1504). He visited various universities, and then in 1512 passed into Italy. Returning to Germany in 1517, and crowned poet laureate by the

HUXLEY

Emperor Maximilian, he entered the service of Albert, Archbishop of Mainz, and shared in the fainous satires against the ignorance of the monks, the Epistola Obscurorum Virorum. Eager to see Germany free from foreign and priestly domination, he in 1519 took part, along with Franz von Sickingen, in the campaign of the Swabian League against Ulrich of Würtemberg. He espoused Luther's cause with his customary impetuosity and vehemence. A set of dialogues (1520) containing a formal manifesto against Rome moved the pope to have him dismissed from the archbishop's service. He found shelter in Sickingen's castle of Ebernburg in the Palatinate, whence he discharged a shower of invectives, denunciations, and satires on the papal party, and wrote rousing appeals to the German emperor, nobles, and people. His earliest work in German, Aufwecker der teutschen Nation (1520), is a keen satiric poem. Driven to flee to Basel in 1522, he was coldly treated by Erasmus, and irritated into a bitter epistolary quarrel; and finally found a resting-place through Zwingli's help on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich. There he died in August or September 1523. See his Opera Omnia (ed. Böcking, 1859-62), and Lives and other works by Strauss (4th ed. 1878; trans. 1874), Reichenbach (2d ed. 1888), Lange (1888), Schott (1890), and Szamatólski (1891).

Hutter, LEONHARD (1563-1616), a champion of Lutheran orthodoxy, was professor of Theology at Wittenberg from 1596. His theological Compendium (1610) was long a standard work, as was also his Concordia concors (1614). Hase (q.v.) adopted Hutter's name.

Hutton, CHARLES, LL.D. (1737-1823), mathematician, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was a teacher there 1755-73, and published works on arithmetic (1764), mensuration (1771), and bridges (1772). From 1773 to 1807 he was professor of Mathematics at Woolwich Academy. An F.R.S., he was chosen to calculate the density of the earth from Maskelyne's observations on Schiehallion. He published mathematical tables and handbooks, and Recreations in Mathematics (1803). Hutton, JAMES (1726-97), one of the founders of geology, was born at Edinburgh. He studied medicine there, in Paris, and at Leyden, but in 1754 settled in Berwickshire and devoted hinself to agriculture and chemistry, from which he was led to mineralogy and geology; in 1768 he removed to Edinburgh. The Huttonian theory, emphasising the igneous origin of many rocks and deprecating the hypothetical assumption of other causes than those we see still at work, was expounded in two papers read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, A Theory of the Earth (1785) and A Theory of Rain (1784). The former was afterwards expanded into two volumes (1795). He also wrote Dissertations in Natural Philosophy (1792), Considerations on the Nature of Coal and Culm (1777), and other works.

Hutton, WILLIAM (1723-1815), a Birmingham bookseller, born at Derby, author of histories of Birmingham and Derby, &c. See his Autobiog raphy (1816). - His only daughter, CATHERINE (1756-1846), wrote novels, &c.

Huxley, THOMAS HENRY, biologist, born at Ealing, Middlesex, 4th May 1825, studied medicine at Charing Cross Hospital, and in 1846-50, as assistant-surgeon of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, surveying the passage between the Barrier Reef and the Australian coast, collected marine animals, and made them the subjects of scientific papers for the Royal and Linnean Societies-notably one

on the Medusa. An F.R.S. since 1851, he in 1853 wrote his memoir on the morphology of the Cephalous Mollusca. In 1854 he was appointed professor of Natural History, including Palæontology, in the Royal School of Mines, a post he held, with a curatorship in the Museum of Practical Geology, till 1885. In 1854 he wrote on the anatomy of the Brachiopoda. In 1856 he accompanied Tyndall to the Alps, and was joint-author of Observations on Glaciers (1857). In 1859 his Oceanic Hydrozoa was published by the Ray Society. His main work was vertebrate inorphology and paleontology, with occasional excursions into ethnology; but he produced also papers on the Aphis (1858), the Pyrosoma (1860), a manual of the Invertebrata (1877), and a work on Crayfishes (1878). In vertebrate morphology there were the Theory of the Vertebrate Skull (1858), Man's Place in Nature (1863), the article Amphibia' in Enc. Britannica (1875), Lectures on Comparative Anatomy (1864), and An Introduction to the Classification of Animals (1869). In palæontology there were memoirs on Pterygotus (1858) and Belemnites (1864), Fossil Fishes (1862), the Neanderthal Skull (1864), Reptilian Remains from India (1864), and Evidences of Affinity between Reptiles and Birds (1869-70). There were separate works on Elementary Physiology (1866), Physiography (1877), Hume (1879), and Science and Culture (1881). Lay Sermons appeared in 1870; Essays on Controverted Questions in 1892; and Collected Essays were republished, with an autobiogra phical article (9 vols. 1893-95). Huxley greatly interested himself in educational questions, strongly advocated Darwin's views and evolu tionist doctrines, and in the magazines and else where dealt in a trenchant manner with what he regarded as the obscurantist views of orthodox theologians and biblical students. He held examinerships and professorships in the University of London, the Royal Institution, and the Royal College of Surgeons; was president of the Ethnological Society and of the British Association; and was secretary and president of the Geological Society and of the Royal Society. He was elected in 1873 Lord Rector of the University of Aberdeen, and a member of the London School Board in 1870. He was Inspector of Salmonfisheries 1881-85. A member of the Privy Council since 1892, he died at Eastbourne, 29th June 1895, and was buried in Marylebone Cemetery, Finchley. See Life by his son Leonard (1897).

His

With

Huygens, CHRISTIAN, physicist, born at the Hague, April 14, 1629, was the second son of the poet Constantyn Huygens (1596-1687), who was secretary to the Prince of Orange, and was knighted by James I. of England in 1622. Huygens studied at Leyden and Breda. mathematical Theoremata was published in 1651. Next he made the pendulum-clock, on Galileo's suggestion, and expounded it in Horologium Oscillatorium (1657). He also developed Galileo's doctrine of accelerated motion under the action of gravity, preparing the way for Newton. an improved telescope of his own construction he in 1655 discovered the ring and fourth satellite of Saturn, described in Systema Saturnium (1659), along with the Micrometer. In 1660 he visited England, where he was admitted an F.R.S. discovered the laws of collision of elastic bodies at the same time as Wallis and Wren, and improved the air-pump. In optics he first propounded the undulatory theory of Light, and he is the discoverer of Polarisation. The principle of Huygens' is a part of the wave-theory. In 1666 he settled in Paris, where he remained till 1681, a

He

HYPATIA

member of the Royal Academy of Sciences; but as a Protestant he felt it prudent to return to the Hague, where he died, 8th July 1693.

Huysmans, JACOB (c. 1636–96), portrait-painter, was born at Antwerp, and settled in London soon after the Restoration.

Huysmans, JORIS KARL, a French novelist of Dutch origin, was born in Paris, 5th February 1848, and from ultra-realism went over in 1891 to esoteric mysticism-his craze, devil-worship.

Huysum, JAN VAN (1682-1749), Dutch painter, born at Ainsterdam, studied under his father, JUSTUS VAN HUYSUM (1659-1716), a landscapepainter. Jan too painted landscapes, purely conventional in style. But his fruit and flower pieces are distinguished for exquisite finish.-A brother, JACOB (1680-1740), also a painter, died in London.

Hwen-T'siang, or HIQUEN-THSANG (c. 605-664), a Buddhist monk of China, born near Honan, in 629 set out on a pilgrimage to India, travelling by way of the Desert of Gobi, Tashkend, Samarcand, Bamian, and Peshawar. He remained in India 631-44, visiting the sacred places and studying the sacred books. His memoirs (648) are important for the history of India and Bud dhism. They and a Life of him were translated into French by Stanislas Julien (1853-58) See also Hiuen Tsiang (Trubner's Oriental Lib. 1888).

Hyacinthe, PÈRE, the former monastic name of CHARLES LOYSON, born at Orleans, 10th March 1827. He became a priest in 1851, and taught philosophy and theology at Avignon and Nantes. Entering the order of the Carmelites (1862), he became a powerful preacher, and gathered enthusiastic audiences to the Madeleine and Notre Dame in Paris. He denounced abuses in the church with great boldness; was excommunicated (1869); protested against the Infallibility Dogma; but, although he attended the 'Old Catholic' Congress at Munich, declared his intention to remain in the Catholic Church. In 1872 he married an American lady. He has published sermons and lectures, and in 1879 established a 'Gallican' congregation in Paris.

Hyde. See CLARENDON (Earl of).

Hyder All (1728-82), by his bravery at a siege (1749) attracted the notice of the maharajah's minister, and soon rose to be all-powerful; after 1759, though calling himself only regent,' he left his master only the title of maharajah. He conquered Calicut, Bednor, and Kananur; and in 1766 his dominions included more than

84,000 sq. m. He withheld the customary

tribute from the Mahrattas, and carried on war against them. He waged two wars against the British, in the first of which (1767-69) he was prac tically successful, and dictated peace under the walls of Madras. When Hyder was defeated by the Mahrattas in 1772 he claimed English support; and on this being refused he became the bitter enemy of the English. Taking advantage of the war between them and the French (1778), he and his son, Tippoo Saib, descended into the Carnatic, routed the English, and ravaged the country to within forty miles of Madras, but were ultimately defeated in three battles by Sir Eyre Coote. Bowring's Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (1893).

See

Hypatia, daughter of Theon, an astronomer and mathematician of Alexandria, was born in the later part of the 4th century A.D. Her learning, wisdom, and high character made her the most influential teacher in Alexandria, and the fame of her lectures drew students from all parts

HYPERIDES

of the Greek world. Her philosophy was an eclectic endeavour to combine Neoplatonism with Aristotelianism; she also taught astronomy and mechanics. She was hacked to death in a riot created by the zeal of the bishop Cyril against heathen philosophy (415). Kingsley's romance, Hypatia, appeared in 1853. See German monographs by Wolff (1879) and Meyer (1886).

Hyperi'des, or HYPEREIDES, Greek orator of the 4th century B.C., became a professional advo cate, and earned large sums. From the first he opposed the party which advocated peace with Philip, and so supported Demosthenes till after the death of Philip and during the early portion of Alexander's career. Only when Demosthenes endeavoured to follow an impossible via media did Hyperides break with him, and head that accusation of bribery against Demosthenes which not only resulted in his banishment, but com. mitted Athens to the fruitless revolt against Macedon known as the Lamian war. The leaders of this revolt were Leosthenes and Hyperides; the former perished in battle, the latter was put to death by Antipater (322 B.C.). Although Hyperides was admired and studied in Roman times, it was not until 1847 that we had any specimens of his oratory. At various dates between 1847 and 1856 three English travellers obtained in Egypt papyri containing four of his orations; in 1889 the Louvre bought part of another. In his speeches Hyperides is always transparent, never monotonous, witty to a degree, refined in his raillery, and delightful in his irony. Above all, he never in his keenest attacks passes the bounds of good taste, as does Demosthenes. The best text is that of Blass (3d ed. 1894); and see Hager's Quaestiones Hyperideœ (1870).

Hyrcanus, JOHN, son of Simon Maccabæus,

was Jewish high-priest in 135-105 B.C., and at first tributary to the Syrians; but on the death of Antiochus he made himself independent, and subdued the Samaritans and Idumæans, concluded an alliance with the Romans, and extended his territories almost to the limits of the Davidic monarchy. Hyrcanus was a just and enlightened ruler, and the country was prosperous during his reign. He left five sons, two of whom, Aristobulus and Alexander, governed with the title of king.-HYRCANUS II., a feeble son of Alexander, was, on the death of his father (78 B.C.), appointed high-priest by his mother Alexandra, who ruled Judæa for the next nine years. After her death (69 B.C.) his younger brother Aristobulus seized the government, but was poisoned (49 B.C.), when Hyrcanus again became high-priest. But in 47 Cæsar made Antipater of Idumæa procurator of Judæa with supreme power; and a son of Aristobulus, with the help of the Parthians, invaded the land, captured Hyrcanus, cut off his ears, and carried him off to Seleucia. But when Herod, son of Antipater, came to power, the aged Hyrcanus was invited home to Jerusalem, where he lived in peace till, suspected of intriguing against Herod, he was put to death in 30 B.C.

Hyrtl, JOSEPH (1810-94), Viennese anatomist.

Hyslop, JAMES, poet, born at Kirkconnel, Dumfriesshire, July 23, 1798, while a shepherd near Airdsmoss, Ayrshire, the scene of Richard Cameron's death, wrote a poem, 'The Cameronian's Dream' (1821). He prepared himself by private study for teaching, and through the influence of Lord Jeffrey was appointed tutor on a man-of-war. He died off the Cape Verd Islands, 4th November 1827. His poems were collected by the Rev. P. Mearns in 1887.

AM'BLICHUS, Neoplatonist philosopher, was a native of Chalcis, in Cole-Syria, and died about 333 A.D. In his hands the Neoplatonist philosophy degenerated into theurgy and demonology. His writings included a Life of Pythagoras and treatises on mathematics and philosophy.

Ibn Batuta (1304-78), Arab traveller and geographer, was born at Tangiers, spent thirty years (1325-54) in travel, then settled at Fez, and wrote the entertaining history of his journeys. His travels led him to Mecca, Persia, Mesopotamia, Arabia, Africa, Asia Minor, Bokhara, India, China, Sumatra, southern Spain, and Timbuktu. His work was published with a French translation in 1858-59 (3d ed. 1893).

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), Arabic historian, was born at Tunis of Seville ancestry, and died at Cairo, after a life at the courts of Fez, Granada, Tunis, &c. His History of the Arabs of Spain and Africa, which according to Prof. Flint entitles him to rank as the founder of the philosophy of history, has been largely translated into French by the Baron de Slane (7 vols. 1852-68).

Ibrahim Pasha (1789-1848), adoptive son of Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, from 1825 to 1827 occupied the Morea to aid the Turks against the insurgent Greeks. In 1831 he undertook the conquest of Syria, and in 1832 routed the Ottoman army at Koniya, after which the Porte ceded Syria to Mohammed Ali on condition of tribute -a cession, however, terminated through the

quadruple alliance of 1840. In 1848 he succeeded Mohammed (become imbecile) for two months.

Ibsen, HENRIK, born at Skien in south Norway, 20th March 1828, was a chemist's assistant at Grimstad 1842-50. His first drama, Catilina (1850), was a failure; but after a short spell of study at Christiania, and nearly two years of journalism, he became director of Ole Bull's theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote five romantic dramas. In 1857 he became director of the National Theatre in Christiania. His next dramas were The Warriors in Helgeland (1858), The Rival Kings (1864), and Love's Comedy (1862). The first two, reproducing the spirit of the old sagas, placed Ibsen in the foremost rank of Scandinavian dramatists; the last was a precursor of his satirical social dramas. In 1862 the National Theatre went bankrupt; and Ibsen, enraged because Norway held aloof from the Danes in their struggle against the Germans, forsook his country 1864-92, living in Rome, Dresden, and Munich. The Norwegian parliament granted him a pension in 1866. In 1866-67 appeared the lyric dramas Brand and Peer Gynt; in 1873 the double drama Emperor and Galilean (Julian and Christ; Eng. trans. 1876). followed Pillars of Society (1877), A Doll's House (1879), Ghosts (1881), An Enemy of the People (1882), The Wild Duck (1884), Rosmersholm (1886), The Lady from the Sea (1888), Hedda Gabler (1890), The Master Builder (1892), Little Eyolf (1894), and John Gabriel Borkman (1896). These plays aroused a storm of controversy in England froin

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