ceeded by Gen. George Argesanu, who resigned (Sept. 28) his place to Constantin Argetoianu, an industrialist, president of the Senate and royal counsellor. George Tatarescu, liberal ex-Premier and ambassador to Paris, succeeded Argetoianu (Nov. 24, 1939). Under his government, which renounced the British guarantee of national integrity as a gesture of neutrality in the war, Bessarabia and Northern Bukowina were lost to Russia. Tatarescu resigned (July 4), and King Carol appointed a rightist cabinet headed by John Gigurtu, former Commerce and Industry minister. Gigurtu embarked upon a course of totalitarian rule, declared the Army was the first care of the State and gave agriculture and industry a new organization aimed to intensify production. negotiated with Hungary the rectification of Rumania's western boundary, the breakdown of which resulted in the arbitration decision of the Axis powers decreeing the dismemberment of Transylvania (Aug. 30, 1940). The Gigurtu cabinet resigned Sept. 5, 1940), and King Carol II named Gen. Ion Antonescu Prime Minister. Simultaneously a decree dissolved parliament and gave Gen. Antonescu supreme authority to rule over Rumania. The following day King Carol abdicated in favor of his son, Grand Voyvode Michael, who became King Michael I.

He

Gen. Antonescu created a totalitarian State (Sept. 15) with himself as Chief of State, Premier, and Minister of National Defense, which merged the portfolios of Minister of Munitions, Aviation, Navy and War, and (Nov. 1940) adhered on behalf of Rumania to the tripartite pact among Germany, Italy and Japan.

The Iron Guard was proclaimed the sole political party and four of its chieftains taken into the cabinet. The Guard staged (Jan. 20, 1941) an unsuccessful coup to eliminate Gen. Antonescu and the other non-Guard cabinet members in an effort to seize control of the economic departments, as a result of which it was officially suppressed and the members condemned to prison. The government was reorganized with Gen. Antonescu as Premier and Foreign Minister, and leading generals in key cabinet posts. A plebiscite (March, 1941) gave overwhelming approval to the government's program of spiritual and economic rehabilitation aiming at the recovery of the Rumanian population lost to foreign rule (1940). Rumania took action (June 22, 1941) to reoccupy Northern Bukowina and Bessarabia, whose loss to Russia had not been recognized. All this territory was re

gained (1941) in the Axis fight against Russia in which Rumania participated.

The soil of Rumania is fertile. Four-fifths of the population engage in agriculture and stock-raising. The most important agricultural products are wheat, corn, rye, barley and oats, the aggregate output of which was 7,287,610 metric tons (19391940), a subnormal year. Vineyards and orchards are plentiful. The country yields salt, petroleum, natural gas, lignite, gold, iron, copper, zinc and pyrites. Flour milling, brewing and distilling are important industries.

Under the land reform initiated by King Ferdinand (1918), over 15,000,000 acres were expropriated in favor of the peasantry. In Wallachia and Moldavia 1,000,000 farmers; in Transylvania, 540,000; in wooded Bukovina 55,000 and in Bessarabia 557,016 received land by 1929, with the result that today Rumania is a country of small farms, only 27.7% of the country's area representing holdings of more than 100 hectares (247 acres) each. Of the forests, some 7,390,000 were State property (1938), of which 2,194,000 acres under direct Government management, and 5,196,000 managed by private companies under Government grant and supervision. Public institutions owned 3,301,000 acres and over 7,500,000 acres were in private hands. The Agriculture Ministry estimated (1938) the value of Rumania's forests at $347,420,000, that of tillable land at $412,650,000, and of livestock at $496,000,000. Fisheries yield $121,950,000 annually.

Primary education is free and obligatory. There were (1935) 2,041 kindergartens, 15,344 public schools, 756 secondary schools and universities and polytechnical schools in the capitals of the provinces, Bucharest, Jassy, Cluj, Chisinau, Cernauti and Timisoara, all under the Ministry of Education; in addition there were 1,423 primary and 218 secondary private schools.

Military service is universal and compulsory from the ages of 21 to 50.

Liberty of worship is assured. Orthodox clergy are paid by the State, other clergy being subventioned. Jews are organized by communities which are placed under special laws.

Ordinary Government revenue (1939-1940) exceeded actual expenditure by 10.5%; current estimates balance revenue and expenditure at 44,870,000.000 lei (official buying and selling rates in effect April 1, 1941) are respectively 187.60 and 195.00 lei to the dollar). Current national defense revenue is estimated at 16,000 million lei.

Salvador

(REPUBLICA de EL SALVADOR) Capital, San Salvador-Area, 13,176 square miles-Population (1940) 1,744,535 Salvador lies along the Pacific Ocean with Honduras as its northeast boundary, and Guatemala on the northwest. Its coast line is 160 miles long and its average breadth 60 miles. Along the sea is a narrow, low alluvial plain, and the interior is a plateau about 2,000 ft. above sea level, containing a number of volcanic cones. Earthquakes are frequent. The country has luxuriant forests and abundant mineral deposits, which are undeveloped. Mestizos and Indians form two-thirds of the population.

Under the Constitution (1924) a President for four years and single chamber of 70 deputies for a year are elected by universal suffrage. The President is Gen. Maximiliano Martinez, appointed (Dec. 4, 1931) and confirmed by Congress (Feb. 7, 1932) and elected (Jan. 13-16, 1935) for a four-year term. He was re-elected (Jan. 21, 1939) for a sixyear term. The dominant religion is Roman Catholic. The language is Spanish.

Salvador is a one-crop country. Its prosperity depends upon the sale of its coffee, which has a high reputation. About 265,000 acres are devoted to coffee. Coffee forms 96% in value of all the exports. The United States takes 62% of the exports and supplies 47% of the imports. Henequen and balsam are also exported.

Military service is compulsory from 18 to 50 in case of war.

Education is free and compulsory.

A three-power agreement pledging the Governments of Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras to a common policy in matters of general concern in Central America was signed (May, 1927).

The budget (1941) estimates revenues at 22,047,000 colones and expenditures at 22,044,000. The value of the colone is $2.50.

San Marino

Area, 38 square miles-Population (Sept. 1939), 14,545 San Marino, situated in the Apennines near Rimini, in the heart of Italy, claims to be the oldest State in Europe and to have been founded in the fourth century. A treaty of friendship with the Kingdom of Italy (June, 1897) was revised (1908) and (1914). It has extradition treaties with the United States, Great Britain, Belgium and Holland. Agriculture and stock raising are practically the only industries. Chief exports are wine, cattle and building stone.

San Marino is governed by a Great Council of

60 members elected by popular vote. two of whom
are chosen to exercise executive power for a term
of six months. The militia consists of all able
bodied persons between the ages of 16 and 55.
with the exception of teachers and students.
Revenue and expenditure (1939-1940) balanced at
6,009,919 lire. There is no public debt. It has its
own coinage and postage stamps, but Italian and
Vatican City currency are in general use.
San Marino is reached by carriage or motor from
Rimini, 15 miles away.
miles long, was completed (1932).
An electric railway, 20

Anglo-Egyptian Soudan

Capital, Khartoum-Area, 969,600 square miles-Population (latest estimate), 6,342,477 The Soudan is bounded by Libya and Egypt on east, Uganda (British) and the Belgian Congo on the north, the line being the 22° north latitude: the the south, and French Equatorial Africa and Libya Red Sea and Eritrea (Italian) and Ethiopia on the on the west.

Its greatest length north and south is 1,650 miles, and its greatest breadth east and west is 900 miles. The northern zone consists of the Libyan desert. on the west, and the mountainous Arabian desert, extending to the Red Sea on the east, separated by the narrow valley of the Nile; the central zone has large areas of fertility, including the rainlands of Kassala and Tokar, the Gezira plain and the pastures and gum forests of Kordofan; and the southern equatorial belt where the soil is richest and watered by tropical rains.

It is the principal source of the world's supply of gum arabic. Cotton is grown extensively. Other important products are sesame, senna leaves and pods, ground-nuts, dates, hides and skins, mahogany, dom nuts (vegetable ivory) chillies, semn (ghee), melon-seed. beans, corn, trochus and mother of pearl shell, shea nuts, salt, ivory and gold. The staple food of the inhabitants is dura (great millet).

The White Nile flows north through the middle of the country; the Blue Nile, rising in the mountains of Ethiopia, flows northwest to its junction at Khartoum with the White Nile to make the Nile that flows on in a huge S curve to enter Egypt at Wadi Haifa. Khartoum is 1,345 miles south of Cairo, and 1,255 ft. above sea level. Formerly a hot bed of malaria, modern sanitation has eliminated the mosquito.

The population estimated at 9.000,000 (1884) decreased to 2,000,000 under Dervish misrule through

war, famine and disease. The inhabitants are partly Arabs, partly Negroes and partly Nubians of mixed Arab and Negro blood; the Arabs and Nubians are Mohammedans. The Mahdist rebellion (1884), culminating in the fall of Khartoum and the death of Gen. Gordon (Jan. 26, 1885). forced the Egyptian Government to withdraw from the Soudan, retaining only Wadi Halfa on the Nile and Suakin on the Red Sea as frontier ports. The Dervishes were overthrown by Lord Kitchener with the Anglo-Egyptian army at Omdurman (Sept. 2, 1898). On the reconquest of the Soudan an agreement was signed (Jan. 19, 1899) between Egypt and Great Britain, which fixed the boundary, provided for the administration of the territory by a Governor General appointed by Egypt with the consent of Great Britain (aided since 19:0 by a council) who should make laws by proclamation, and providing that the British and Egyptian flags should fly together.

Soudan has its own defensive force with a few Egyptian soldiers.

While Egypt claims the Soudan as an integral part, the British Government has officially announced as a fixed policy that Great Britain will never abandon the Soudan or tolerate any attempt to disturb the administration.

The monetary unit is the Egyptian pound, with an average value of $4.54. Governmental revenue (1938) was £E5,131,635 expenditures were £E4,857,784.

Spain

(ESPANA)

The

Capital Madrid-Area, 196,607 square miles-Population (est. April 26, 1940), 26,000,000 Spain is bounded on the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Atlantic and by France, on the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea, the British fortified station Gibraltar being at the southernmost tip, guarding the entrance to the Mediterranean from the Atlantic. The Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean (capital, Palma; area, 1,935 square miles: population, 368,173) and the Canary Islands (area, 2.807 square miles; population, 564,873), in the Atlantic, are provinces of Spain; Ceuta, a fortified post in Africa, opposite Gibraltar (area, five square miles; population, 39,510), is part of the Province of Cadiz.

to the Franco government (April 1, 1939). Government placed (Feb. 1, 1941) the responsibility for feeding their workers on the key industrial and mine owners. The Ministry of Labor issued an

order that any factory or mine that he designates must establish company stores to supply employes with necessaries.

Spain occupies the entire Iberian peninsula with the exception of Portugal. The lofty Pyrenees separate it from France. The interior is a high inclosed plateau traversed east and west by mountain range and deficient in rainfall.

The productive land of Spain comprises nearly 114,000,000 acres, about 90% of the total area, but only about 56.000.000 acres are under cultivation. while 60,000.00 acres are pastures and mountains.

The Spanish republic was established (1931) when, following the overwhelming victory of the Republicans in the municipal elections, Alfonso XIII, King of Spain from his birth (May 17, 1886). and Queen Victoria, with the Royal family, went into exile (April 14). A self-formed provisional government headed by Niceto Alcala Zamora carried on. A Cortes, the first in eight years, was elected (June 28) and formed itself into a Constituent Assembly with members elected by universal suffrage for four years. Zamora was elected President for six years, and a constitution adopted (Dec. 9) under which Church and State were separated, Church property confiscated, education made entirely secular, provision made for the division of the large estates among the peasants and other socialistic plans made possible. (See The World Almanac for 1936, pages 697-98.

President Zamora dissolved the Cortes, and to the new one elected (Feb. 16, 1936) were returned Left parties, 263; Center, 62; Right, 148; giving the Leftist (the Popular Front) a clear majority. The Cortes at once removed Zamora from the presidency for violation of the Constitution in dissolving the previous Cortes, and (May 11,) Manuel Azana, the Premier, was elected President for a six-year term. Santiago Casares Quiroga formed a Leftist Cabinet without participation of the Extremists.

A counter revolution broke out (July 19, 1936) of the political elements opposed to the Popular Front. The Nationalists set up a Government at Burgos under the leadership of General Francisco Franco (born Dec. 14, 1892, in El Ferrol). The civil war continued until the surrender of Madrid (March 28, 1939). Azana had resigned as president (Feb. 27, 1939), the day that Great Britain and France recognized Franco, and fled to France. The United States formally accorded recognition

The first meeting after the civil war of the Grand Council of the Falange Espanola Tradicionalista, which under the Spanish totalitarian system replaced the Parliament, opened in Burgos (June 5, 1939) under the presidency of Gen. Franco to legislate for the peace time organization of the country. Spain announced a 12-year reconstruction program costing $516,000,000 and a law for the compulsory service of all males between 18 and 50 for reconstruction was approved by the cabinet. They must work 15 days a year for the State or pay the equivalent in wages.

General Franco announced (Aug. 10, 1939) his new cabinet with himself as Leader (Caudillo) of the Empire. Chief of State. Commander-in-Chief of the Army, Prime Minister, Minister of the Interior and Head of the Military Directorate.

The new cabinet replaced the civil war government, established Jan. 1, 1938, which in turn succeeded the junta of five generals that conducted the Nationalist Government during the first eighteen months of the conflict. General Franco assumed the power in cases of urgency to issue decrees with the force of law without a vote of the Council of Ministers.

Under the Republican Constitution Spain had no State religion, although a vast majority of the population is Catholic. The Franco Government has reestablished Catholicism as the State religion, religious bodies have recovered their legal status and confiscated property has been returned. Primary education is compulsory and free and religious teaching has been returned to its former status.

The Army was reorganized (1939) and is composed of ten army corps, not counting the forces in the Balearic and Canary Islands. Service is compulsory for two years. A Ministry of the Air. separate from the War Ministry and having full control of all aviation, whether civilian or military, was created (1939). The Navy consists of approximately 50 boats, including destroyers, torpedo boats, gunboats, submarines and miscellaneous craft.

The Merchant Marine consisted (Jan. 1, 1940) of 923 vessels with a gross tonnage of 1,074,845. The principal agricultural products of Spain are wheat, barley, oats, rye, olives, grapes, lemons. oranges and other fruit, onions, almonds, esparto, flax, hemp, pulse and cork. Wine-making is important. Spain possesses an abundance of minerals. Iron is mined in the provinces of Viscaya, Santander, Oviedo, Navarra, Huelva, and Seville; copper in the provinces of Sevilla, Cordoba and Huelva; coal in Oviedo, Leon, Gerona, Valencia and Cor

doba; zinc in Santander, Murcia, Guipuzcoa, and Vizcaya; cobalt in Oviedo; lead in Murcia, Jaen and Almeria; manganese in Oviedo, Huelva and Seville; quicksilver in Ciudad Real and Oviedo; silver in Guadalajara; sulphate and soda in Burgos; sulphur in Murcia and Almeria; phosphates in Caceres and Huelva.

All railroads were placed under government ownership and operation (Feb. 1, 1941) in an effort to solve the country's transport tangle. Narrow gauge and mining railroads were not affected.

SPANISH

The colonies of Spain are now relatively unimportant, in sharp contrast with those which she held in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Guinean lands in Africa (area 10,036 square miles; population 140,000) are undeveloped, and small values are taken therefrom. All figures are mere estimates.

Spain has given France the right of pre-emption in case of the sale of any of these African colonies or the adjacent Islands.

The chief ports are Barcelona, Pasajes, Bilbao and Cadiz.

The budget (1941) is estimated to balance at 7,000,000,000 pesetas. The budget (1940) was the same. Italy billed Spain (Feb. 27, 1941) for 5.500,000,000 lire (approximately $270,000,000 at the official Italian exchange rate) for aid given to Generalissimo Franco in the civil war. This is to be paid off in 25 years. Interest is graduated starting at one-fourth of one per cent and ending at 4 per cent. COLONIES

Morocco, over a part of which (area, 18,350 square miles; population, 750,000) Spain exercises a protectorate and where she has suffered severe military setbacks, is less developed than the French Algerian and other African possessions. (See Morocco.) Other Spanish possessions are Rio de Oro and Adrar (area, 109,200 square miles; white population, 840); Ifni (965 square miles and 20.000 population); Fernando Po and others near Guinea (795 square miles and 23,846 population).

Sweden
(SVERIGE)

Capital, Stockholm-Area, 173,347 square miles-Population (Jan. 1, 1940), 6,341,303 Sweden occupies the eastern and largest part of the Scandinavian peninsula in northwest Europe. A mountain range separates it from Norway on the west, and the Gulf of Bothnia and the Tornea River from Finland on the east. The Baltic Sea separates it from the Baltic states and Germany on the southeast and south and the Cattegat from Denmark on the southwest. The mountain range between Norway and Sweden is frequently referred to as the Kjolen mountain, but such a mountain does not exist geographically, but is merely a name used exclusively in certain expressions to indicate the dividing line between the two countries.

The Government is a constitutional monarchy. The Legislature has two Chambers, the first of 150 members and the second of 230 members. Suffrage is universal for all over twenty-four years of age of both sexes.

The King of Sweden is Gustav V. (born June 16, 1858), succeeded on the death of his father, Oscar II (Dec. 8, 1907). He married (Sept. 20, 1881) Princess Victoria,. daughter of Friedrich, Grand Duke of Baden (died in Rome, April 4, 1930). The Crown Prince Gustav Adolf (born Nov. 11, 1882) married (June 15, 1905) Princess Margaret (died May 1, 1920), daughter of the Duke of Connaught and granddaughter of Queen Victoria. He has four sons and one daughter by his first marriage. His second wife, Lady Louise Mountbatten, he married (Nov. 3, 1923).

The Government is composed of five SocialDemocrats, two Agrarians, three Conservatives, two Liberals and three non-Partisan Ministers. Prime Minister is Per Albin Hansson, Social-Democrat (born Oct. 28, 1885).

Lakes and rivers are more numerous in Sweden than in any other European country except Finland. The Government's hydro-electric plant, Porjus. in Lappland many miles north of the Arctic Circle, the center of a vast iron mining section, has a capacity of 105 thousand HP. The water power resources of the country more than 18 million HP.

are

The importance of the electric power is shown by the fact that the electrification of Swedish railway trackage is 50 per cent complete and the railroads now electrified bear 90 per cent of the total railroad traffic. As to other means of transportation, Sweden had, before the war, about 230,000 motor cars, trucks, buses, etc. The blockade, however, has cut off practically all imports of gasoline. As substitute cars with charcoal burners are used; more than 50,000 vehicles of this type were being used (June, 1941).

well

Although of broken, mountainous topography, Sweden contains much productive land. watered, on which the Swedes have attained high efficiency in agriculture. Half the people are on farms. which number about 430,000; of which 120,000 are under 5 acres, and 270,800 between 5 and 50 acres. Sweden's total area divides 9.4% The forest arable, 2.3% meadows, 59.4% forests. area is about 58,000,000 acres. In Lapland 32% of the trees are more than 160 years old and 45% are more than 120 years old.

Of the forest lands 45% are owned by farmers, 4% by large landed proprietors, 27% by companies having sawmills, pulp mills, etc., and about 24% by the state. In forestry, lumbering, sawmills and

pulp mills, 100,000 men are regularly employed and 400,000 more obtain some part of their living therefrom. Before the war, 90 per cent of sawed and planed wood were exported, 75 per cent of the woodpulp and 60 per cent of the paper. Although this export has suffered tremendously from the loss of the markets beyond the seas, new ways have been found to utilize the products of the forest in the Swedish home market. Private houses, industries and railroads burn wood instead of coal and coke. Fabrication of rayon and other textiles made of pulp has increased, and it has even been possible to produce cattle fodder from woodpulp. The principal crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn, peas, beans, vetches, potatoes, sugar beets, fodder roots and hay.

About 10,000 are engaged in the mining industry, which is most extensive north of the Arctic Circle. The Swedish steel is of especial value for tool making. The iron and mechanical industry employes about 175,000; textiles, 80,000 and the paper industry, 60,000.

Because of the blockade, Sweden has been cut off from markets which took about 70 per cent of the imports and an even higher percentage of the exports. Imports and exports in very small quantities have been managed via Gothenburg and the Finnish Arctic port of Petsamo. A trade treaty negotiated with the Soviet Union (1940) provided for deliveries of Russian fodder, breadstuffs, mineral oil and certain metals, in exchange for chiefly highclass manufactured Swedish goods. The export to Germany consists above all of forest products and iron ore, the latter not exceeding pre-war quantities. No export of war materials is allowed.

The population is very homogeneous, being entirely of the Scandinavian branch of the Aryan family, except about 30,000 Finns and 6,500 Lapps. Most of the people are Lutheran Protestant, which is the state religion, but complete freedom of worship exists. Education is compulsory.

Population of the chief cities (1940) is: Stockholm, 583,621; Gothenburg, 280,602; and Malmo, 154,270.

Compulsory and universal military service is re

quired from 20 to 46. The budget (1938-39) balanced at 1,295.000 kronor, increased (1939-40) to 2,767,000 kronor. About half of this, or 1,377,000 kronor, was reserved for military expenses, which for the year 1940-41 amounted to 2,500,000 kronor. For the budget year 1941-42 the corresponding costs are being calculated to at least 1,550,000 kronor. The Navy has eight coast defense ships. three cruisers, 20 destroyers, ten motor torpedo boats, 75 mine sweepers and 28 submarines. The Air Force, divided into 10 regiments, includes, according to non-official estimates, 500 aircraft, and is being heavily increased. The Army organization is undergoing change.

Parliament passed (1940) a new enabling law for compulsory national service by which all Swedes can be called to perform specified kinds of work considered to be of national importance.

The monetary unit is the krona, with an average value of $.24.

The merchant marine (July 1, 1939) consisted of 2,259 ships with a gross tonnage of 1,611,462. There are free ports at Stockholm, Goteborg and Malmo.

Switzerland

(SCHWEIZ-SUISSE-SVIZZERA)

Capital, Berne-Area, 15,944 square miles-Population (est. Jan. 1, 1940), 4,218,000 Switzerland is bounded on the west by France. the north by Germany, the east by Germany and Italy, and the south by Italy. It is mostly mountainous, having many high peaks of the Swiss Alps, with many fertile and productive valleys between, in which dairying flourishes, and much foodstuff is produced. The German language is spoken by a majority of the people in 16 of the 22 cantons, French in five, and Italian in one. German was spoken (1930) by 2,924,314 persons, French by 831,100, Italian by 242,034, Romansch by 44,204, and other languages, 24,797. There were (1930) 355.522 foreigners in the country.

The chief cities are: Zurich, 330,000; Basle. 165,000; Berne, 125,000; Geneva, 125,000; Lausanne, 90,000; St. Gall, 65,000; Winterthur, 60,000 and Lucerne, 48,000.

Switzerland is the peacetime winter playground of Europe. Four large riverine districts contribute to its grandeur-the Rhine, Rhone, Po and Danube. Almost three-quarters of the country serve as a watershed for the Rhine, whose more important tributaries are the Aare, Limmat, and Reuss. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in the central part of Switzerland; the Inn flows out of the mountains of the Engadine to the Danube; the most important Swiss tributary of the Po is the Tessin, which rises in the Gotthard range. The formation of the courses of the rivers and the channels which they have carved in the valleys impart to Switzerland-situated as it is in the heart of Europe-great geographical importance from the traffic point of view, for the shortest roads between north and south, east and west, ran through this country from time immemorial. The northern escarpment of the Alps extends into the foothills and rolling midlands, which are bounded by the Jura range running from north-east to south-west. The Alps constitute 61%. the midlands 27%, and the Jura 12% of Switzerland.

The midlands, lying between the Jura and the Alps, is the cultivated and industrial district, where towns, commerce and industry flourish.

The Jura is an ancient deciduous limestone range, which acted as an abutment when the Alps were formed, being thereby mounted in a series of folds running parallel to one another. Their altitudes seldom exceed 4,500 ft. to 5,200, ft.,

The Alps, from the scenic point of view, constitute the most varied and beautiful chain of

high mountains in the world. In the Swiss Alps there are no fewer than 70 peaks with an altitude ranging from 10,000 feet to 15,000. The largest number is in Canton Valais, where the Dufour Peak of Monte Rosa, 15,217 ft. above sea level, is the Switzerland is also in the region of the Alps-the highest in the country. The lowest point in shore of Lake Maggiore, which is about 650 ft. above sea level, while the bottom of the lake itself is 575 ft. below sea level. Other Swiss lakes famous for their beauty are Zurich, Zug, Lugano, Walensee, Brienz, Thoune, Lucerne, Geneva, and Constance. In all, there are 21 large lakes.

2,000,000 acres pasturage. Dairy products form the About 3,000,000 acres are under grass and about chief agricultural industry, followed by cattle, pigs, fruit, poultry, tobacco, wheat, rye, oats and potatoes. The country is famous for its wine and cheese. The principal minerals are salt, iron ore, and manganese. Watchmaking and embroidery are important manufactures.

Switzerland is a confederation of 22 cantons, which are joined under a Federal Constitution (that of May 29, 1874, being now in force), with large powers of local control retained by each canton. The national authority vests in a parliament of two chambers, a "Ständerat" or States Council to which each canton sends two members. The lower house, Nationalrat or National Council, has 187 members elected according to population, one representative to about 22,000 persons. President (1940) is Ernest Wetter and the Vice President Philippe Etter.

The

Social welfare legislation covers subsidies for sick insurance, accident insurance, unemployment relief, old age pensions and professional training courses.

Primary education has been free and compulsory since 1874. There are seven universities, the oldest, Basel, founded in 1460.

There is complete freedom of worship.

Service in the national militia is compulsory and universal. Service liability extends from 18 to 60. The Federal Council estimated national defense expenditures (1941) at 1,050,000,000 francs compared with 1,136,000,000 (1940) and 392,000,000 (1939).

The monetary unit is the franc with an average value of $.23.

Governmental receipts (1941) are estimated at 518,000,000 francs: expenditures at 592,000,000.

Syria and The Lebanon

of violent riots and protracted strikes forced his resignation (Feb. 23, 1936).

Area 57,900 squares miles-Population (1935), 3,630,000 Syria is a former province of the old Turkish Empire, made an independent State by the Treaty mandate given to France by the Supreme Council of Serves (Aug. 10, 1920) and administered under a of the Allied Powers. On the north lies Turkey, on the east the Iraq, on the south Transjordania and Palestine, and on the west the Mediterranean Sea. It is about the size of Michigan. The population is mainly Moslem.

Syria is divided into the Republic of Lebanon, proclaimed a State as Great Lebanon (Sept. 1. 1920) with Beirut as its capital and the French tricolor, charged with a cedar on the white stripe, for its flag; the State of Syria formed by uniting Damascus, Alexandretta, Aleppo, Hama Homs, Hauran, and Deir Ezzor (1925), with Damascus as the capital; the Government of Latakia (set up May 14, 1930), and the Government of Jebel Druse, both under direct French administration.

The area in square miles of the territorial divisions under the mandate are-Syria, 49,100; The Lebanon, 3,600; Latakia, 2,800; Jebel Druse, 2,400. The population follows-Syria, 1,696,638; The Lebanon, 862,618; Latakia, 286,920; Jebel Druse, 51,780. There are about 250,000 Bedouin tribesmen (nomads).

of

The French have met in Syria constant difficulties of administration, economic troubles, armed uprisings, notably the Druse rebellion (1925-27) and the Damascus outbreak (1925), and during recent years much turmoil over the Arab nationalist ferment. Although a Franco-Syrian treaty friendship and alliance was signed (Nov. 20. 1933) the Nationalists refused to accept it and the French High Commissioner had to suspend the Syrian Parliament (Nov. 3, 1934) and govern by decree through a puppet Premier, Sheikh Taj. Six weeks

Hashem El Atassi (elected Dec. 21, 1936) resigned as president (July 7, 1939) in protest against French failure to grant complete independence to the Republic. The Cabinet had resigned previously Gabriel Puaux, French High Commissioner, suspended the Constitution and appointed a board of directors to rule the mandated State under his guidance. The French High Commissioner is Henri Dentz.

for the same reason.

A Franco-Syrian treaty approving establishment of an independent Syrian State, under French military supervision, was signed (Sept. 8, 1936). Great Britain occupied Syria and the Levant (1941) under the terms of an armistice with the Vichy Government of France terminating a five-weeks' war. France turned her mandate over to the British and Free French forces.

Syria was proclaimed a Republic (Sept. 16, 1941) by the occupying Free French authorities and Sheik Tajeddine Hassani was proclaimed president. The Prime Minister is Hassan Bey Hakin. Free France acted in agreement with Great Britain in terminating the mandate.

The unit of currency is the Syrian pound which is pegged to the French franc at the rate of 20 francs to one Syrian pound.

Tobacco, wheat, fruit, wine and silk are the chief products, followed by cotton, barley, corn, sorghums, sesamé, olives, grapes and citrus fruits.

The population is composed mainly of Moslems. There is a public education system; also private and foreign schools. There is a Syrian University in Damascus, agricultural colleges in Selemie and Bekaa, with an American and a French University in Beirut.

Thailand (formerly Siam)

(PRADES THAI OR MUANG-THAL)

Capital, Bangkok-Area, 221,898 square miles-Population (est, July, 1938), 15,976,000 Thailand is situated in Southeastern Asia, with for the people, and an elected parliament, Burma (British India) on the northwest and west and French Indo-China on the northeast and east, and the Gulf of Thailand, which is part of the China Sea, on the south and east. It also occupies the neck of the Malay Peninsula as far as the Federated Malay States (British). It is of rolling topography with large areas susceptible to irrigation. of which about 250,000 acres have been under water since 1922.

The Government changed (1939) the official name of the country to Thailand, the ancient name of Siam. The word Thai was substituted for Siamese. Bangkok, the capital, in the delta of the Menam, is a modern city.

The town of Nakon Sritamaraj, 1,000 years old, is the home of perhaps the most distinctive Siamese art, the "Niello" work which has been practised for more than eight centuries. The process consists in the tracing of designs on silver by means of gentle repoussé work and afterward filling up the depressions with a black metallic substance obtained from lead, copper and silver, melted with sulphur.

There are many large forests, teakwood being an important article of export. Labor is higher than in almost any other Oriental country.

The chief crop is rice, the staple food of the people and heavily exported. Other important products are para-rubber, cocoanuts, tobacco, pepper and cotton.

Mineral resources are extensive and include coal, tin, iron, manganese, tungsten, antimony and quicksilver.

Thailand, one of the last of the absolute monarchies, underwent a bloodless revolution (June 24, 1932). It was aimed at the elders of the Royal House, of the government, and of the army who had opposed the King in liberalizing his regime. The King (June 29, 1932) signed a new constitution establishing a limited monarchy, full franchise

King Prajadhipok, a liberal, had trouble with both the Communistic and the Reactionary elements of his country. When in England awaiting had by a coup seized power, presented to him a an operation on his eyes, the government, which measure taking away the royal power over life and death. He refused to sign it on the ground that it merely transferred the power to his ministers. He abdicated, and the throne passed to his nephew, Prince Ananda Mahidol (born Sept. 20, 1925).

During the King's minority a Council of Regency was appointed to rule. The Council (Dec. 16, 1938) named Col. Luang Bipul Songgram, Defense Minister and head of the dominant militarist clique, premier. The appointment was made in the name of King Ananda, who had returned (Nov. 15) from his school in Switzerland for a visit. Col. Songgram was succeeded by Prince Aditya Dibabha.

A border dispute arose between Thailand and French-Indo China (1940) and was settled (1941) under mediation by Japan. The terms of the settlement awarded to Thailand, 21,750 square miles in Cambodia and Laos, one of the richest rice producing sections of French Indo-China. The settlement provides that the ceded territories are to become demilitarized zones in which French nationals and Indo-Chinese natives will have full rights to go and come or to keep their homes and businesses.

All able-bodied males between the ages of 18 and 30 are liable to military service; two years in the Army, and 23 in the reserves. The Air Force consists of five wings. The Navy consists of approximately 60 small vessels, the majority modern.

Buddhism is the prevailing religion. There were (1938-1939) 18,416 temples with 140,774 priests. The monetary unit is the baht (tical) with an average value of $.38. Governmental revenues (1941) are estimated at 137,968,768 bahts with expenditures of 187,968,657.

Turkey

(TURKIYE CUMHURIYETI)

Capital, Ankara-Area, 294,416 square miles (not including Republic of Hatay)-Population (Oct. 1940) 17,869,901

Up to the beginning of the World War, Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire, included European Turkey, Anatolia, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Armenia and Kurdistan, also groups of islands in the Aegean Sea.

The areas of the Turkish Empire (so late as 1916) totaled about 710,224 square miles, with about 21,273,900 of population.

In Asia, a part of Armenia has adopted a Soviet government and is at least in harmonious agreement with Soviet Russia, Syria passed under the mandate of France and was occupied by Great Britain (1941). Mesopotamia has been created the independent kingdom of the Iran; Palestine has come under the mandate of Great Britain; and Arabia has asserted its independence, and is now the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Turkey in Europe is now bounded on the north by the Black Sea, Bulgaria and the Caucasus; on the east by the Caucasus and Persia; on the south by Iraq, Syria and the Mediterranean Sea; on the west by Bulgaria, Greece and the Aegean Sea.

Under the Treaty of Sevres (Aug. 10, 1920), imposed on Turkey after the World War, various divisions of her territory were made and a neutral zone was set up on either shore of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the Hellespont.

The Sanjak of Alexandretta (set up Jan. 1, 1925) as part of the State of Syria became an independent province known as the Hatay Republic under a treaty concluded (June, 1938) between France and Turkey. Its capital is Antioch. Hatay was ceded to Turkey by France (June 23, 1939) in a mutual assistance pact.

The real power in the Turkish Empire was seized by the Grand National Assembly and a responsible Ministry set up by the Nationalists at Ankara, in Anatolia, which was the most genuinely Turkish section of the old Ottoman Empire, after the last Chamber of Deputies, sitting at Constantinople, was dissolved (April 11, 1920). The Assembly declared that Mohammed VI was deposed as Sultan, and the Sultanate abolished. It declared (March 2. 1924) that his successor as Caliph, Abdul Medjid II, was deposed as Caliph (spiritual head of Islam) and that the Caliphate was vested in the Assembly.

Turkey (April 10. 1936) asked of the eight powers signatory to the Treaty of Lausanne for its revision so that she might remilitarize the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. The powers consented at a meeting at Montreaux, Switzerland (June 20).

A constitution replacing the Fundamental Law of 1921 was adopted (October, 1925). It provided for a single legislative National Assembly of 283 Deputies elected on a basis of one to each 50,000 people by males over 18. This provision was changed (Dec. 14, 1934) when the franchise was given to women and the age of both men and women made 22 years, and the ratio changed to one for 40,000. The Assembly elected for four years (March 26, 1939) has 424 members including 14 women.

The National Assembly elects the President of the Republic for a four-year term from among its members. In 15 years a steady flow of legislation has been enacted to Westernize the country. By tacit omission polygamy and slavery were abolished, civil marriages were made obligatory and registration of marriages was ordered. The Gregorian calendar was adopted, the 24-hour clock, and the metric system. All Turks were ordered to adopt family names. The fez was outlawed and most of the younger women discarded the veil and with it the old custom of seclusion. The Assembly (May 28, 1935) made Sunday the weekly day of rest throughout Turkey in place of Friday, the traditional Mohammedan Sabbath.

Islam is no longer recognized as the State religion, but the vast majority of the Turkish population is Moslem. Turkish has been substituted for the liturgical language in all mosques. The law forbids the wearing of clerical garb except in places of worship during Divine service.

Education is compulsory, free and secular between the ages of 7 and 16. There are primary, intermediate. secondary and vocational schools with universities in Istanbul and Ankara.

Mustapha Kemal Ataturk (Chief Turk), president of Turkey, died (Nov. 10, 1938) and Gen. Ismet Inonu (Nov. 11) was elected to succeed him. A new cabinet was formed (Jan. 25, 1939) with only five of the twelve ministers who held office