cussed first, the Circuit Courts of Appeals second, and third the Supreme Court, which is the highest court, or the court of final jurisdiction.

The District Courts. The lowest regular federal courts are known as District Courts. There are eighty-one districts in forty-eight States, each State forming at least one district.1 As a rule there is one judge for each district, but in several States where there are few federal cases to be tried there is but one judge for two districts, whereas many important districts require more than one judge each. There are ninetyodd judges for eighty-one districts; and inasmuch as district court cases are conducted by a single judge, several cases can be heard at the same time where there are several judges for one district.

A District Court has original jurisdiction of all civil and criminal cases which come under the jurisdiction of the federal courts, except cases between two States, suits involving rep

1 Pennsylvania, for example, forms three districts - Eastern, Middle, and Western. The two judges of the Eastern District hold court in Philadelphia; the one of the Middle District holds court at Harrisburg, Sunbury, Williamsport, and Scranton; and the two of the Western District hold court at Pittsburgh and at Erie.

2 The Northern and Southern districts of Mississippi have but one judge, whereas the Southern District of New York has four judges.

8 By "original jurisdiction" of a District Court is meant that a case is first brought in that court.

4 The District Court has jurisdiction of (1) all civil suits brought by the United States or one of its officers authorized to sue; (2) cases arising under the Constitution, statutes, or treaties of the United States where the sum or value in controversy exceeds $3000; (3) cases between citizens of different States, or between a citizen of a State and a foreign state or citizen thereof, where the sum or value in controversy exceeds $3000; (4) all crimes and offences recognized by the laws of the United States; (5) admiralty and maritime cases; (6) revenue cases, except tariff classifications which come before the Court of Customs Appeals; (7) postal cases; (8) all suits arising under the patent, copyright, and trade-mark laws; (9) suits arising under the federal laws regulating commerce (10) damage suits brought by an officer against a person injuring him while protecting or collecting revenues of the United States; (11) suits against consuls and vice-consuls; (12) proceedings in bankruptcy; (13) claims not exceeding $10,000 against the United States (concur

resentatives of foreign governments, customs cases, and claims against the United States. In most cases appeals may be taken from the decision of a District Court to a Circuit Court of Appeals, but in a few cases may be taken directly to the Supreme Court.1

The Circuit Courts of Appeals. In 1891 there were nine Circuit Courts of Appeals 2 established to relieve the Supreme Court of a large class of cases appealed from the District Courts.3 These cases had become too numerous for one court to hear, and as a result the Supreme Court was then about three years in arrears with its business.

The judges for each Circuit Court of Appeals include one justice of the Supreme Court assigned to the circuit, two or more circuit judges appointed for the circuit, and all the district judges within the circuit. The Supreme Court justice supervises his circuit, but seldom finds time to sit in the court. Normally the court is held by three regular circuit judges, but any district judge within the circuit may be assigned to sit on

rent jurisdiction with Court of Claims); (14) immigration and contract labor cases; (15) suits against monopolies (trusts); (16) suits brought by any person to redress the deprivation of any right, privilege, or immunity secured by the Constitution or statutes of the United States. But note that if the sum or value involved in cases enumerated under (2) and (3) is less than $3000 the action must be brought in a State court.

1 Appeals may be taken directly to the Supreme Court (1) when the jurisdiction of the court is at issue; (2) when a federal law or treaty or a State law is claimed to be repugnant to the Constitution of the United States; (3) cases growing out of prizes captured at sea; and (4) certain kinds of injunctions. The first and second classes of cases referred to are allowed to go directly because they are practically sure to reach the Supreme Court sooner or later. The third class goes directly because there is great danger of complications with foreign nations. The fourth class goes directly because of the urgent need for an immediate final decision.

2 Previous to the establishment of the Circuit Courts of Appeals there existed nine Circuit Courts, but these courts have since been abolished (1909) and their jurisdiction transferred to the District Courts and to the Court of Customs Appeals.

8 The First Circuit comprises Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine. The judges hold court at least once a year at Boston.

4 There are now twenty-nine circuit judges.

any case except those which have been appealed from his own district.

These Circuit Courts of Appeals have no original jurisdiction, but hear all cases appealed from the District Courts except the special classes of cases which may be appealed directly to the Supreme Court of the United States. These courts have final jurisdiction1 in some classes of cases, while in others appeals may be taken to the Supreme Court of the United States.

The Supreme Court is composed of one Chief Justice and eight associate justices. It sits in the Capitol at Washington from October to May of each year, and has both original and appellate jurisdiction. Suits between States and cases in which ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls are parties originate in this court. Such cases are few, but very important, because States have tempers differing from individuals, and the failure to handle with care cases involving foreign diplomats might involve the United States in war. Nearly all of its cases are appealed from inferior courts, i.e. from the

1 By "final jurisdiction" is meant that a case may not be appealed to any higher court.

District Courts, the Circuit Courts of Appeals, the Court of Customs Appeals, the Court of Claims, and the highest court of each State, the District of Columbia, and a territory or island possession.

The most important duty of the Supreme Court is to give a final interpretation to the Constitution of the United States.

Copyright. Underwoou o Unuer wou, Y. I.

THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT ROOM.

This view shows the court attendants, counsel, and visitors awaiting the arrival of the judges.

Whenever any person thinks that a clause of the Constitution has been violated by a law of Congress, a treaty, a provision of a State constitution, or a State statute, he can raise the question in any State or federal court from the local justice of the peace to the highest judge, and may appeal until he obtains the final opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Concurrent Jurisdiction. Congress gives federal and State courts concurrent jurisdiction in many cases, that is, it permits certain cases to be tried either in a federal court or in a State

court. Often a federal question and a State question are included in the same controversy. Owing to the difficulty and expense of dividing a case for separate trials in different courts, both State and federal questions are decided in the federal court, or in some cases both questions may be tried in a State court. But if a plaintiff1 brings a suit in a State court, over which the United States District Courts are given jurisdiction, the defendant 2 may have it transferred to the District Court. 124. Special Courts. There are two special federal courts, the Court of Claims and the Court of Customs Appeals. The former was established as a sort of investigating commission to advise Congress concerning claims against the United States government, and the latter to insure a uniform interpretation of technical tariff laws.

The Court of Claims. The Court of Claims, established in 1855, consists of five judges who sit in Washington. It is a well-established principle of public law that a sovereign state cannot be sued against its will, and before the establishment of this court a person having claims against the United States government could get no redress except by an act of Congress.

Now the government allows itself to be sued in this court on all claims, except pensions and certain "war claims," founded upon the Constitution of the United States or any laws of Congress, or upon any regulation of an administrative department, or upon any contract, expressed or implied, with the government of the United States, but it will not permit itself to be sued for the wrongful acts of its officers.

The awards of this court, unlike those of all other courts, cannot be paid until Congress appropriates the money to pay them. Upon the first day of each regular session of Congress the findings of the court for the year are sent to Congress, and the money is appropriated almost as a matter of course.

The attorneys of the United States may appeal any case

1 A "plaintiff " is the person who commences a suit in law against another. 2 A "defendant" is a person accused or summoned into court who defends himself against the charge.