without success, to capture Detroit, and a large force of the warriors of several of the tribes laid siege to Pittsburgh, the most important post in the valley of the Ohio. The ravages of the Indians were extended over the wide territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, and the settlements in that region were for the time completely broken up.

General Bouquet, with a force of five hundred men, consisting chiefly of Scotch Highlanders, was sent from eastern Pennsylvania to the relief of Fort Ligonier, which was located at the western base of the mountains, and of Pittsburgh. Their march lay through a region which had been desolated by the Indians, and they were obliged to depend upon the stores they carried with them. Upon reaching Fort Ligonier Bouquet found the communication with Pittsburgh cut off, and could learn nothing of the fate of the fort or garrison. Leaving his cattle and wagons at Ligonier, he pushed forward with his men in light marching order, determined to ascertain if Pittsburgh still held out. He had to fight his way through the Indians, who turned aside from the siege of the fort, and ambushed the Highlanders at nearly every step. They were overwhelmingly defeated by the gallant Highlanders, for Bouquet was now a veteran Indian fighter, and had learned to fight the savages with their own tactics. Their rout was complete, and Bouquet reached Pittsburgh in safety, to the great joy of the garrison.

Bouquet's victory was decisive. The Indians were utterly disheartened, and fled westward; and from that day the Ohio valley was freed from their violence. The tide of emigration once more began to flow over the mountains, and this time it was to know no cessation. The tribes concerned in Pontiac's conspiracy lost hope, and were overawed by the preparations of the English for their destruction, and began to withdraw from the confederacy, and make peace with the whites. Pontiac soon found himself deserted by all his followers, even by his own people; but his proud spirit would not brook the thought of submission. He would make no treaty; he was the mortal foe of the English, and would never acknowledge their rule. Leaving his home and his people, he set out for the country of the Illinois, for the purpose of stirring up the more distant tribes to war. A proclamation from Lord Amherst offered a reward for his murder, and he soon fell, the victim of the hired assassin.

The long war was over. It had brought both loss and gain to the colonies. It had involved them in an expenditure of $16,000,000, of which sum but $5,000,000 had been refunded by the English government. Thus the debts of the colonies were greatly increased. Thirty thousand men had been killed, or had died from wounds or disease dur

ing the war, and the sufferings of the settlers along the extended and exposed frontiers had been almost incalculable.

On the other hand, the war had greatly increased the business of the colonies, especially in those of the north. Large sums had been spent in America by Great Britain for the support of her armies and fleets, and many fortunes were built up by enterprising men during this period. Above all the Americans had been taught their own strength, and the value of united action. They had often proved their superiority to the regular troops of the English army, and had learned valuable lessons in the art of war. In the long struggle Washington, Gates, Morgan, Montgomery, Stark, Putnam, and others were trained for the great work. which was to be required of them in future years. The colonies were bound together by a common grievance, arising out of the haughty contempt with which the royal commanders treated the provincial troops, and sacrificed their interests to those of the regulars. The lesson that the colonies could do without the assistance of England, and that their true interests demanded a separation from her, was deeply implanted in the minds of many of the leading men. Another gain for the colonies was a positive increase in their liberties, resulting from the war. The necessity of securing the cordial ccöperation of the Americans during the struggle caused the royal governors to cease their efforts to enforce arbitrary laws, during the existence of hostilities, as the enforcement of such measures would have alienated the colonists, and have prevented them from raising the needed supplies of men and money. The colonial assemblies were careful to take advantage of this state of affairs. They made their grants of supplies with great caution, and retained in their own hands all the disbursements of the public funds. They thus accustomed the people to the practices of free government, and taught them their rights in the matter, so that when the war closed the royal governors found that they were no longer able to practise their accustomed tyranny.

CHAPTER XXV.

CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

Injustice of Great Britain towards her Colonies-The Navigation Acts-Effects of these Laws upon the Colonies-Great Britain seeks to destroy the Manufactures of AmericaWrits of Assistance-They are Opposed-Home Manufactures Encouraged by the Americans-Ignorance of Englishmen concerning America-Great Britain claims the Right to Tax America-Resistance of the Colonists - Samuel Adams-The Parsons' Cause-Patrick Henry-England persists in her Determination to Tax America-Passage of the Stamp Act-Resistance of the Colonies-Meeting of the First Colonial Congress-Its Action-William Pitt-Repeal of the Stamp Act-Franklin before the House of Commons-New Taxes imposed upon America-Increased Resistance of the Colonies -Troops quartered in Boston-The "Massacre "-The Non-Importation Associations— Growth of Hostility to England-Burning of the "Gaspé "-The Tax on Tea retained by the King-Destruction of Tea at Boston-Wrath of the British Government-Boston Harbor Closed-Troops Quartered in Boston-The Colonies come to the Assistance of Boston-Action of the Virginia Assembly-General Gage in Boston-The Regulating Act-Its Failure-Gage seizes the Massachusetts Powder-Uprising of the Colony— Meeting of the Continental Congress-Its Action-Addresses to the King and People of England - The Earl of Chatham's Indorsement of Congress - The King remains Stubborn.

HE treaty of Paris placed England in control of the North American continent east of the Mississippi, and the English government was of the opinion that this possession brought with it the right to treat America as it pleased, without regard to the rights or liberties of her people. We have already considered some of the many acts of injustice by which Great Britain drove the colonies into rebellion against her. We have now to relate those bearing more immediately on the separation.

The navigation acts of 1660 and 1663 were passed, as we have seen, for the purpose of crippling the commerce of the colonies, and confirming their dependence upon England. They were severely felt throughout all the colonies, and especially in New England, which was largely dependent upon its commerce. These acts were the beginning of a policy deliberately adopted by England, and persisted in by her for more than a century, for the purpose of enriching her mercantile class by depriving the colonists of the just rewards of their labors. The Americans were regarded by the mother country as inferiors, and as dependents, who had

been planted by her in "settlements established in distant parts of the world for the benefit of trade." The natural right of all men to acquire property and wealth by the exercise of their industry was denied to them; they were to labor only that the British merchant might grow rich at their expense. Every species of industry in America, save the mere cultivation of the soil, was to be heavily taxed that it might be crushed out of existence. The Americans were to be obliged to ship their products to England for sale, and to be compelled to purchase in her markets the supplies they needed. No foreign country might trade directly with the colonies. Such articles of foreign production as were needed must be shipped to England, and then transferred to British vessels for transportation to the colonies, in order that they might yield a profit to the English ship-owner. The only direct trade which was allowed, and was not taxed, was the infamous traffic in negro slaves, against which every colony protested, and which Great Britain compelled them to accept. Even the trees in the "free woods," suitable for masts, were claimed by the king, and marked by his "surveyer-general of woods." It was a criminal offence to cut one of them after being so marked.

In spite of these outrages the colonies persisted in their efforts to establish manufactures and a commerce of their own. As early as 1643 iron works were established in Massachusetts, and in 1721 the New England colonies contained six furnaces, and nineteen forges. Pennsylvania was still more largely engaged in the manufacture of this metal, and exported large quantities of it to other colonies. By the year 1756 there were eight furnaces and nine forges, for smelting copper, in operation in Maryland. In 1721 the British ironmasters endeavored to induce Parliament to put a stop to the production of iron in America, but without success. In 1750 they were more successful. In that year an act of Parliament forbade, under heavy penalties, the exportation of pig-iron from America to England, and the manufacture by the Americans of bariron or steel for their own use. All the iron works in the colonies were ordered to be closed, and any that might afterwards be erected were to be destroyed as "nuisances."

Some of the colonies had engaged in the manufacture of woollen goods, and the making of hats had become a very large and profitable business. In 1732 Parliament forbade the transportation of woollen goods of American manufacture from one colony to another, and the same restriction was placed upon the trade in hats. As an excuse for this outrage it was argued that as the Americans had an unlimited supply of beaver and other furs open to them, they would soon be able to

supply all Europe, as well as themselves, with hats. England was unwilling that America should manufacture a single article which she could supply, and in order to cripple the industry of the colonies still further it was enacted by Parliament that no manufacturer should employ more than two apprentices. In 1733 the famous "Molasses Act" was passed, imposing a duty on sugar, molasses, or rum imported into any of the British possessions from any foreign colony. The object of this act was to benefit the British West India possessions by compelling the North American colonies to trade with them.

In order to enforce the various restrictions upon the trade of the colonies Great Britain established in America a large force of customs officers, who were given unlawful powers for this purpose. Parliament enacted that any sheriff or officer of the customs, who suspected that merchandise imported into the colony in which he was stationed had not paid the duty required by law, might apply to the colonial courts for a search warrant, or "writ of assistance," and enter a store or private dwelling and search for the goods he suspected of being unlawfully imported. These writs were first used in Massachusetts in 1761, and aroused a storm of indignation from the people, who felt that their most sacred rights were being violated by them. They were resisted, and the case was carried before the courts in order to test their validity. James Otis, the attorney for the crown, resigned his office rather than argue in behalf of them, and with great eloquence pleaded the cause of the people. His speech created a profound impression thoughout the colonies, and aroused a determination in the hearts of his fellow-citizens to oppose the other enactments of Parliament which they felt to be unjust. This trial was fatal to the writs, which were scarcely ever used afterwards. "Then and there," says John Adams, " was the first opposition to arbitrary acts of Great Britain. Then and there American Independence was born."

The spirit of opposition soon manifested itself in the New England colonies. The manufactures, trade, and fisheries of that section were almost ruined, and the people had no choice but to defend themselves. Associations were formed in all the colonies pledging themselves not to purchase of English manufacturers anything but the absolute necessities of life. Families began to make their own linen and woollen-cloths, and to preserve sheep for their wool. Homespun garments became the dress of the patriot party, and foreign cloths were almost driven out of use. It was resolved to encourage home manufactures in every possible way, and associations were formed for this purpose. These measures became very popular, and were adopted by the other colonies in rapid succession.