be the circular measure of an angle, the angle contains 180°; conversely, if an

π

CIRCLE, MAGIC, a space in which sorcerers were wont, according to the ancient popular belief, to protect themselves from the fury of the evil spirits they had raised. This C. was usually formed on a piece of ground about 9 ft. square (in the east, 7 ft. appears to have been considered sufficient), in the midst of some dark forest, churchyard, vault, or other lonely and dismal spot. The C. was described at midnight in certain conditions of the moon and weather. Inside the outer C. was another somewhat less, in the center of which the sorcerer had his seat. The spaces between the circles, as well as between the parallel lines which inclosed the larger one, were filled" with all the holy names of God," and a variety of other characters supposed to be potent against the powers of evil. Without the protection of this C., the magician, it was believed, would have been carried off by the spirits, as he would have been, had he by chance got out of the charmed space.

CIRCLE, MURAL, an instrument used for determining the meridian altitude or zenith distance of a star. It consists of an astronomical telescope firmly fixed to a graduated circle, which moves about a horizontal axis, fixed in a strong vertical wall running north and south. In the common focus of the eye-piece and objectglass of the telescope is a system of cross-wires (spider lines are generally used for the purpose), one being horizontal, and five vertical, with equal spaces between. The line joining the optical center of the object-glass with the intersection of the horizontal and middle vertical wires, is called the line of collimation of the telescope, and when the instrument is in perfect adjustment, this line moves in the plane of the meridian.

Besides the above-mentioned fixed wire, there is a movable one, called a micrometer wire, which is moved by means of a screw, remaining always parallel to the fixed horizontal wire.

If the instrument be so adjusted that the image of a star, while passing across the middle vertical wire in the field of view, shall at the same time be bisected by the fixed horizontal wire, the star is at that moment in the line of collimation of the telescope. It is therefore at that moment in the meridian, and its meridian zenith distance is the angle through which the circle would have been turned from the position it had when the line of collimation of the telescope pointed to the zenith. There is a fixed pointer, for the purpose of approximately reading the instrument. If the instrument were accurately adjusted, so that the pointer was opposite the zero point of the circle, when the line of collimation of the telescope pointed to the zenith, the arc intercepted between these two positions of the instrument would be the meridian zenith distance of the star.

Great nicety is required in "reading" the instrument; i.e., in determining exactly the arc through which the circle has moved in bringing the telescope from the vertical to any other position. The rim is usually graduated at intervals of five min utes; and the eye could determine only the division nearest to the fixed index. But by means of a "reading microscope,' or micrometer (q. v.), fixed opposite to the rim, the portion of the interval to the nearest division on the rim can be read to seconds. There are usually six such microscopes fixed opposite different points of the rim; and the "reading" of the instrument is the mean of the "readings" of all the micro£copes. This tends to eliminate errors arising from imperfect graduation and adjustment. If the instrument is properly adjusted, the zero point of the circle will be opposite the fixed pointer when the line of collimation of the telescope points to the zenith. In practice, however, this is not always accurately, or even approximately the case. As we shall immediately show, it is of no consequence, as the final result of every observation is the difference between two readings.

It is evident that the difference between any two readings of the instrument will represent the angle through which the line of collimation of the telescope moves in passing from one position to the other. It remains to show how a fixed point, viz., the nadir (q.v.), is observed, and then how an observation is taken of the star itself in its meridian passage.

We must explain here that the fixed horizontal wire in the eye-piece of the telescope, in the instruments as now used, is only an imaginary line which determines the line of collimation of the telescope. It coincides with the position of the micrometer wire, when the screw-head of the micrometer marks zero.

To observe the nadir, a trough of mercury is placed underneath the instrument, and the telescope is turned so as to look vertically downwards into it. An image of the system of cross-wires which is in the common focus of the object-glass and eye-piece, will be reflected back again to nearly the same focus. Looking into the telescope, the observer now adjusts it by means of a tangent screw till the reflected image of the hori zontal wire coincides with the real one. The final adjustment is perhaps most delicately affected by turning the screw-head of the micrometer which moves the wire itself. When they coincide, the line joining the center of the object-glass of the telescope with

Circulating.

the intersection between the middle vertical and horizontal micrometric wire, will be vertical. Now, the angle between this and the line of collimation of the telescope, which, as we have said, joins the optical center of the object-glass with the intersection of the middle vertical and imaginary fixed horizontal wire, will, if the micrometer is in proper adjustment, be at once read off the micrometer screw-head. The instrument being clamped as above adjusted, the microscopes are read off, and the reading of the micrometer screw-head above mentioned being added to or subtracted from this reading, as the case may be, the nadir reading of the instrument is determined. The zenith reading, therefore, which differs from it by 180°, is at once known.

Again, to observe a star in the meridian, the instrument is previously adjusted so that the star, in passing the meridian, shall pass over the field of view of the telescope. As the image of the star approaches the center of the field, the observer adjusts the telescope by the tangent screw, so as very nearly to bring the image of the star to the horizontal wire. Finally, just as the star passes the middle vertical wire, he bisects the image of the star with the horizontal wire by a touch of the micrometer screw-head. The circle being now clamped (or made fast), the "reading" is determined as before by reading the pointer and microscopes, and adding or subtracting, as the case may be, the reading of the micrometer. This reading now subtracted from the zenith-reading gives the meridian zenith distance of the star; and this, again, subtracted from 90°, gives its meridian altitude above the horizon.

At the royal observatory of Greenwich, the principal observations are now made by an instrument which combines the mural C. with the transit instrument. See TRANSIT INSTRUMENT.

CIRCLE, QUADRATURE OF. See QUADRATURE.

CIRCLES OF THE SPHERE. See ARMILLARY SPHERE.

CIRCLEVILLE, a city in Pickaway co., Ohio, on the Scioto river, and the Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley railroad, and the Ohio canal; pop., 1880, 6046. It was built on the site of an old Indian fortification of circular form, from which comes the The city has many mills and manufactories.

name.

CIRCUIT. See ELECTRICITY.

CIRCUIT COURT, in American jurisprudence, a court whose jurisdiction extends over a number of counties or districts, and which holds its sittings in various places within the jurisdiction. More definitely, a class of federal courts of which the terms are held in two or more places successively in the various circuits into which the whole union is divided. They are presided over by the chief-justice of the U. S., or one of the associate judges, or by a special circuit justice, or in some cases by a district judge. The C. C. has jurisdiction in law and equity, direct and appellate; hears appeals in admiralty, and in some instances in criminal cases. The systems respecting circuit courts in the several states differ considerably.

CIRCUITS (Fr. circuit; Lat. circuitus, a going round). IN ENGLAND.-England and Wales, with the exception of the co. of Middlesex, are divided, for judicial purposes, into eight C., which the 15 judges visit twice or thrice a year, in pairs, for the purpose of adjudging civil and criminal causes. These C. are the Home, the Midland, the Norfolk, the Oxford, the Northern, the Western, the North Wales, and the South Wales. Criminal charges within the co. of Middlesex and the city of London and surrounding district, are disposed of at sessions which are held monthly at the central criminal court. Before and after term, the judges of the superior courts sit for the adjudication of civil causes in the Guildhall of the city of London, with the exception of the lord chancellor and the vice-chancellor, who sit at Lincoln's inn. "These judges of assize came into use in the room of the ancient justices in eyre, justiciarii in itinere, who were regularly established, if not first appointed, by the parliament of Northampton, 1176 A.D., in the twenty-second year of Henry II., with a delegated power from the king's great court, or aula regia, being looked upon as members thereof."-Stephen's Com., vol. iii. p. 415. See ASSIZE and NISI PRIUS.-IRELAND is divided into the North-east, the North-west, the Home, the Leinster, Connaught, and Munster circuits. See IRELAND, SCOTLAND, JUSTICIARY COURT.

CIRCULAR NOTES are bank-notes specially adapted for the use of travelers in foreign countries; and being, in fact, bills personal to the bearer, they are believed to be more safe as traveling money than ordinary notes or coin. C. N. are furnished by the chief London banking-houses. Those who wish to obtain them, determine beforehand what sum of money they will require on their journey, and that they pay to the banker, who, in exchange, gives C. N. to the amount, each of the value of £10 and upwards. Along with these notes is given a "letter of indication." This letter (a lithographed form in French) is addressed to foreign bankers, requesting them to pay the notes presented by the bearer, whom they name, and to aid him in any way in their power. By way of verification, the bearer appends his signature, and the letter is complete. On the back of the letter there is a long list of foreign bankers, extending all over Europe, any of whom will cash one or more of the C. N., on being presented and indorsed by the bearer; the indorsement being of course compared with the signature on the letter of indication, which is at the same time exhibited. In paying these notes, the money

Circulating.

of the country is given, according to the course of exchange, and free of any charge for commission. For security, the letter and the notes should not be carried together, in case of being stolen or lost. These C. N. are doubtless a safe and convenient species of money, exchangeable in almost every town visited; and if any remain over on coming home, they will be taken back at their value by the banker who issued them. There are, however, certain drawbacks connected with these notes, which every traveler less or more experiences. In many, almost in all, instances, there is a difficulty in finding out where the banker named is to be found; for foreign bankers generally occupy obscure apartments several stories high, and not unusually in dingy out-of the-way alieys. To discover them, a commissionaire may be necessary, Then, in some instances (in Paris invariably), the banker jealously scrutinizes the bearer, asks to see his passport, and takes a note of the hotel at which he lodges; all which may be proper as a precaution against roguery, but it is not pleasant. Further, the C. N. are ordinarily of a thick stiff kind of paper, which does not well fit into a purse or pocket-book. On these several accounts, the careful class of travelers who keep to the main thoroughfares of France, Germany, and Belgium, will find £5 or £10 bank of England notes, and sovereigns or napoleons, a preferable kind of money to take on their journey.

W. C.

CIRCULAR NUMBERS are numbers whose powers end on the same figure as they do themselves: such are numbers ending in 0, 1, 5, 6.

CIRCULAR PARTS, the name given to a rule in spherical trigonometry, invented by lord Napier. It is to be found in any treatise on that subject.

CIRCULATING DECIMALS. See DECIMALS.

CIRCULATING LIBRARY, a collection of books lent out on hire-circulated from hand to hand. The plan of lending books on hire is not new. Chevillier, in his Origines de l'Imprimerie de Paris (4to, 1694), mentions that, in 1342, a century before the invention of printing, a law was framed in Paris, to compel stationers to keep books to be lent on hire, for the special benefit of poor students and others. This fact is alluded to as follows, by E. S. Merryweather, in his entertaining work, Bibliomania in the Middle Ages (London, 1849): "The reader will be surprised at the idea of a circulating library in the middle ages, but there can be no doubt of the fact, they were established at Paris, Toulouse, Vienna, and other places. These public librarians, too, were obliged to write out regular catalogues of their books, and hang them up in their shops, with the prices affixed, so that the student might know beforehand what he had to pay for reading them." This writer, quoting from Chevillier, gives a list of books so lent out, with the prices for reading them. The books are all of a theological or classical kind. Among them is the Bible, the perusal of which is set down at 10 sous. "This rate of charge, it is added, was also fixed by the university, and the students borrowing these books were privileged to transcribe them, if they chose; if any of them proved imperfect or faulty, they were denounced by, the university, and a fine was imposed upon the bookseller who had lent out the volume." In these arrangements, we see the efforts that were made to procure the use of books before the art of printing had cheapened the cost of literature.

By whom the modern C. L. was projected, there is no record. All that can be given are a few facts on the subject. It is known that Allan Ramsay, author of The Gentle Shepherd, who was a bookseller in Edinburgh, established a C. L. in that city about 1725. Fond of dramatic literature, Ramsay appears to have incurred some local obloquy by lending out plays; and his wish to introduce a taste for the drama into Edinburgh may accordingly have suggested the notion of a circulating library. Be this as it may, the library which he began was continued through various hands for above a hundred years. At Ramsay's death in 1758, his library was sold to a Mr. Yair, whose widow carried it on till 1780, when it was bought by Mr. James Sibbald, an ingenious inquirer into Scottish literary antiquities. Sibbald lived some years as a literary man in London, during which period, beginning with 1793, the C. L. was carried on, subject to an agreement by a Mr. Laurie. Sibbald afterwards resumed the direction of the library, which he considerably extended. At his death in 1803, his brother attempted to carry it on; but not being successful in his management, he disposed of it in 1806 to Alexander Mackay, a person of extraordinary energy and perseverance. By the acquisition of various other libraries, Mr. Mackay greatly enlarged the collection, which, under the name of the Edin. burgh C. L., he conducted at 154 High street. Here, by long-continued and minute attention to business, Mr. Mackay realized a competency, and he retired from active pursuits in 1831, when this extensive collection of books was broken up and sold by auction.

There are several circulating libraries in London, claiming to be of old date, but probably not so early as 1725. In a late reprint of an old advertisement, we see Proposals for erecting a public circulating library in London," under date June 12, 1742. This library was to be established "in some convenient place at or near the royal exchange;" and the subscription was to be a guinea per annum. Two of the present circulating libraries are believed to be descended from this primitive stock. So numer ous had circulating libraries become in the early years of the present century, that they absorbed whole editions of novels and romances prepared for the purpose by a London

publishing establishment, designated the Minerva press. The issue of cheap books and periodicals about 1832 (see BOOK-TRADE) seriously damaged the C. L. system; for people now bought instead of borrowing materials for light reading. The vast increase to the reading public in recent times, and the continually augmenting number of new and popular works of a respectable class, have been the means of restoring prosperity to circulating libraries, more especially in London, where some of them are on a surpris ingly gigantic scale. To one library alone, as many as 100,000 new books are said to be added annually, and of kinds very different from those of the old Minerva press school. The method of reading from these libraries consists in paying a sum per annum-usually a subscription of a guinea-for which a number of new books may at all times be procured, and kept for a specified period. When the books are no longer in demand, they are sold at reduced prices.

The method of circulating books among the members of private associations, is noticed under the head BOOK-CLUB; and that of circulating books in rural districts by means of libraries which are shifted from place to place, will be found in the article ITINERATING LIBRARIES. W. C.

CIRCULATING MEDIUM. See MONEY.

SUPPLEMENT TO VOLUME III.

An * indicates that the article to which it is prefixed is continued from the main work.

*BREACH. B. of arrestment is not a recognized term in the U. S. The removal of attached property is a contempt of court and will be punished as such. The rules of the common law have generally been retained in regard to B. of Close. The old name for this was "trespass quare clausum fregit." An instance not mentioned ante, in which such a B. is justifiable is for the immediate abatement and removal of a nuisance upon adjoining lands. If, after due notice to the owner of the lands upon which the nuisance exists, he refuses or neglects to remove or remedy the same, any person who is injured thereby may go upon the land and abate the nuisance without being considered guilty of B. of Close. As a matter of public policy, also, it is permitted for travelers to go upon lands adjoining the public roads when by reason of some obstruction the roads are impassable. In such case, care should be taken to do as little damage as possible and the right ceases as soon as the road is fit for travel. The same general rules as to B. of Covenant and B. of Contract prevail in the U. S. as in England. Relief by specific performance can only be obtained in courts of equity or from courts having equity powers; in many states these powers are united with the functions of the old common law courts.

*BREAD. The statutes of most of the U. S. in reference to food and adulterations thereof generally provide for punishment for the sale of adulterated and unwholesome articles, but are much more general than the English statute. There are no specific enumerations of the requisite ingredients of bread. There is usually appointed a public inspector and analyst, and goods suspected of adulteration must be submitted to his tests. If adulteration is found, the articles may be seized and a fine imposed. Wisconsin approaches more nearly to the English law in this respect than any other state.

BREESE, SYDNEY: 1800-78; b. N. Y.: removed to Ill., 1821. He held important legal offices in Ill., and published a vol. of Supreme court reports, 1829. He served as lieut. col. of vols. in the Black Hawk war; was elected to the Supreme court, 1841; U. S. senator, 1843-49. He was one of the originators of the Ill. Central railroad. After years of service as speaker of the Ill. house of representatives, and in the circuit judgeship, he was elected justice of the Supreme court, holding the office till his death-being for several terms chief justice.

BRETON, ÉMILE: b. France, 1831; bro. of Jules. He became an artist in 1857, after trying the army and business life. During the Franco-German war, he re-entered the army, commanding a battalion, and was decorated for bravery at the battle of St. Quentin. Among his landscapes are "Canal of Courrières," and "Sunset in Autumn."

BREWER, LEIGH RICHMOND, D.D. b. 1839: graduated at Hobart coll., 1863; Gen. theol. sem., 1866; ordained priest, 1867; consecrated miss. bishop Prot. Epis. diocese of Montana, 1880.

BREWSTER, BENJAMIN HARRIS: b. Salem, co., N. J., 1816: graduated at Princeton college, 1834; admitted to the bar of Philadelphia, 1838; and soon rose to the head of his profession. He was appointed atty.-gen. of Penn., 1867, and atty. gen. of the U. S. under Pres. Arthur, Dec. 16, 1881. He d. 1888.

BRIC-A-BRAC: a word formed from the French proverbial expression de bric et de broc, (which finds a near equivalent in the English "by hook or by crook,") and used to denote a miscellaneous collection of articles of vertu, such as bibelots, curios, odds and ends of pottery, and knicknacks of every description. The rage for collections of this kind sprang up in Europe about twenty years ago. At first it was sporadic, attacking only a few people of wealth and leisure, but it soon developed into an epidemic, crossed the Atlantic about the time of the centennial exhibition in Philadelphia, and covered our shelves and mantelpieces with costly, elegant, grotesque, or ingenious baubles, and our walls with Japanese fans and porcelain dishes of uncouth proportions. Associating itself with the cotemporary craze for decorative