cent hydrogen, has its bromine removed and hydrogen put in its place, thus yielding succinic acid (C,H,O.). We shall most easily arrive at the structure of succinic acid by studying its synthesis.

Olefiant gas (C,H,) unites with bromine to form a liquid having the composition (C,H,Br2), and (as can easily be proved by its relation to glycol and glycollic acid), a structure represented thus:

This bromide of ethylene, as it is called, when treated with cyanide of potassium, gives bromide of potassium, and a substance which may be called cyanide of ethylene-bromine and cyanogen changing places (C,H,Br2)+2KCN=C2H1(CN)2+2KBr. As cyanide of potassium is K-CÑ, it follows that cyanide of ethylene is

N=C_

HH

-C=N; when this product is boiled with caustic potash and water, ammo

nia is given off, and succinate of potash remains in solution. Here we have nitrogen uniting with hydrogen, while the place of the nitrogen is taken by that with which the hydrogen was united-viz., the dyad O, and the monad-O-K. We thus obtain the structural formula of succinic acid.

Here are obviously two hydrogen atoms having a different function from the restthose, namely, which are replaceable by metal, and which, in the above formula, are represented as directly united to oxygen. That it is not one of these that is replaced by bromine follows from the fact that bromo-succinic acid has also two atoms of hydrogen replaceable by metals in exactly the same way as in succinic acid itself, and as the other four atoms of hydrogen do not differ in position in the diagram from one another, we have only one possible formula for bromo-succinic acid; and therefore, for malic acid:

We have, however, two possible structural formulæ for asparagine, as it is plain that the two groups H.O-in aspartic acid are not similar to one another, and we have not as yet any means of deciding between them. The reader will see that they are different, and from the way in which structure has been proved, will also see that reactions may be obtained which would decide between the two.

It is not necessary to give any further examples of chemical structure-the two we have treated in some detail may suffice to show how the principle is applied, and what is the nature of the evidence in favor of particular structural formulæ.

*CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS, LAWS RELATING TO. Under the head Apothecary (q.v.) will be found the distinction between that profession and the kindred one of pharmaceutical chemist. The pharmaceutical society of Great Britain, founded in 1841 for raising the standard of efficiency in the practice of dispensing and compounding drugs, was incorporated by royal charter in 1843. An act was passed in 1852 defining the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists, and the society's powers for examining and granting qualifying certificates. The pharmacy act of 1868, referred to below, still further defines its duties and privileges. As in the case of medical practitioners, there is no penalty for mere practice; but the assumption of the specific title named in the act is punishable by fine. The legislature presumes that certificates obtained by examination are evidence of efficient education, but that the freedom of engaging in business ought not to be interfered with; and that the right of the subject to consult whom he chooses, or to buy drugs from whom he will, must be respected. This seems a sound view. III.-24a.

Chénier.

Serious mistakes, such as the substitution of one medicine for another, to the injury of the purchaser, are punishable by law, both in the unqualified and in the case of those qualified under the act. The public also derives great and increasing security in this and in all other departments of human enterprise, from the improving effect of free competition. The operation of the act was simply that of indicating to the public, by a name or title, a class of druggists possessing a higher education. In 1868 it was deemed necessary, owing to the frequent evils arising from the facility of obtaining poisons, to enact that no person should sell, or keep open shop for selling poisons, or assume or use the title of chemist or druggist or pharmacist, unless he be registered under the act 31 and 32 Vict. c. 121, amended by 32 and 33 Vict. c. 117, and conform to the regulations as to sale of poisons. All persons who in 1868 carried on the business of chemists and druggists, and their apprentices and assistants, were entitled to be registered. The register of chemists and druggists under this act now contains the names of all qualified persons in Great Britain. See Supp., page 895.

CHEM'ITYPE is the name given by its inventor, C. Pül, a Dane, to the art of pro ducing on a metal plate, by a chemical process, an engraving in relief. The outline of the process is this: On a polished plate of zinc an etching or an engraving is made in the usual way. The depressions of this design are then filled up with a melted metal-the nature of which is not revealed-and this superadded metal is then reduced to the exact level of the zinc, so that the design now appears as if inlaid. An acid is next applied to the surface, which attacks the zinc, without affecting the inlaid metal; and thus there results an exact copy in relief of the original intaglio engraving. In competition with wood-cuts, relief-lithographs, and copperplates, C. does not seem as yet to evince any great superiority; it fails especially in that character of strength and softness which wood-cuts express so well. The prints produced by this art look more like engravings than like wood-cuts. They have this advantage, however, that they give an exact copy of the original design made by the artists on the metal; whereas in wood-cutting the drawing made on the block may be impaired in its effect by the engraver. C. is particularly adapted for producing maps by the common printing-press. Pül practiced his invention at first on a small scale in Copenhagen, from 1843 to 1846, and then extensively in Leipsic. In 1850, he went to Vienna, where he was employed in the imperial printing establishment.

CHEMNITZ, a t. of Saxony, is situated at the base of the Erzgebirge, and at the confluence of the river Chemnitz with three other rivers, in lat. 50° 50' n., and long. 17° 55' east. It is the principal manufacturing town of Saxony-its industry consisting in weaving cottons, woolens, and silks, and in printing calicoes, chiefly for German consumption. Cotton stockings are a most extensive manufacture, and rival the British in quality and cheapness. The American markets are chiefly supplied from this place. It has several extensive machine factories, producing machinery for flax and wool spinning, weaving, and mining industry. Amongst the numerous educational institutes of C. are schools of weaving, mining, and tailoring. For four centuries C. was a free imperial city. Traces of its antiquity are seen in many of the buildings. Pop. '80, 95,123.

CHEMNITZ, MARTIN, next to Luther and Melanchthon the most distinguished German Protestant theologian of the 16th c., was b. at Treuenbrietzen, in Brandenburg, 9th Nov., 1522; studied at Frankfort and Wittenberg; and, in 1548, became rector of the cathedral-school of Königsberg. About 1550, he began to devote himself seriously to theology, and in 1553 went back to Wittenberg, where he delivered prelections on Melanchthon's Loci Communes, from which sprang his own Loci Theologici, which, for method and learning, excels all similar books of the same age. In 1554, he was made a preacher in Brunswick, where he wrote his Repetitio Sana Doctrina de Vera Presentia Corporis et Sanguinis Domini in Cana Sacra (Leip. 1561), in which he defended Luther's view of the Lord's Supper against that of the Swiss reformers; the Theologia Jesuitorum Præcipua Capita (Leip. 1562); and the Examen Concilii Tridentini (Leip. 1565), a work in which he has argued with remarkable acuteness and learning against the dogmas of the church of Rome. His Corpus Doctrina Prutenica (1566), written in conjunction with Mörlin, became a standard work of divinity among the Prussian Protestants. But his greatest ecclesiastical achievement was inducing the Saxon and Swabian churches to adopt as their confession of faith the Concordienformel, and thus extending and consolidating the creed of Luther. He died at Brunswick, 8th April, 1586.

CHEMNITZIA, a genus of gasteropodous mollusca. It has a slender, elongated, manywhorled shell; the whorls striated; a simple semi-oval aperture; and a horny operculum. There are many recent species scattered all over the world. The discriminating char acters of the fossil species being taken from the form of the shell, it is more than prob able that the remains of very different animals are classed under this generic name. No less than 180 species have been described, occurring throughout all the divisions of the fossiliferous strata from the lower Silurian upwards.

CHEMOSH, the national deity of the Moabites and the Amorites. Solomon intro duced the worship of C. into Jerusalem, but Josiah put a stop to it. Scholars are not

agreed as to descriptions either of the deity or the worship. Jerome identifies C. with Baal-Peor; others with Baal-Zebub; Genesius with Mars, or some god of war; some with Saturn, as the star of ill-omen; C. having, according to Jewish legend, been worshiped in the form of a black stone; and Maimonides says his worshipers went bareheaded, and used no garments sewn by the needle. Hackmann makes the name equivalent to "royal deity," and, apparently, children were sacrificed to him.

CHEMUNG', a co. in s. New York, on the Pennsylvania border, intersected by Tioga river, and traversed by the New York and Erie and the Northern Central railroads, and the canal from Seneca lake to Elmira; 513 sq.m.; pop. '80, 43,065. The surface is partly level and partly hilly; soil fertile. The chief productions are wheat, corn, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, hay, butter, wool, honey, and tobacco. There are, in the county several carriage and wagon manufactories, flour-mills, saw-mills, tanneries, etc. seat, Elmira.

Co.

CHENAB', the largest, according to general opinion, of the five rivers which give name to the Punjab. Like most of the principal streams of India, it rises to the n. of the Himalayas, making its way through the Ritanka pass at the height of 13,000 ft. above the sea, and having its source about lat. 32° 48′ n., and long. 77° 27 east. After a descent of 300 m., the C. reaches the level country. At the close of a course of the same length, it receives, on its right, the Jhelum in lat. 31° 12′ n., and long. 72° 12′ e.; 50 m. further down, it is joined, on its left, by the Ravee; and 110 m. lower, it absorbs, through the Ghara, on its left, the mingled waters of the Beas and the Sutlej. Lastly, at a distance of 470 m. from the ocean, these united floods join the Indus.

CHENAN'GO, a co. in s. New York, on a branch of the Susquehanna, and the Chenango and Unadilla rivers, intersected by the Chenango canal, and the Albany and Susquehanna, the New York Midland, and a branch of the Delaware and Lackawanna railroads; 624 sq.m.; pop. '80, 39,890. It has an elevated, hilly, and broken surface, with fruitful soil, producing corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, cheese, butter, wool, maple sugar, and hops. There are in the county more than 40 cheese factories, and several flour-mills, tanneries, furniture and carriage manufactories. Co. seat, Norwich.

CHENAN'GO RIVER, a stream in central New York, rising in Oneida co., and flowing, with a length of about 90 m., through Madison and Chenango counties to the Susquehanna, near the Pennsylvania boundary.

CHENEY, CHARLES EDWARD, D.D., b. 1836: a graduate of Hobart college and a student in the Virginia theological seminary (Episcopal). He had pastoral charge in Rochester and Havana, N. Y., and in Chicago, Ill. In Dec., 1873, having left the Protestant Episcopal church, he was chosen assistant bishop, and afterwards bishop, of the Reformed Episcopal church, then newly organized. He is a vigorous thinker and an able organizer; he is still rector of Christ church, Chicago.

CHENEY, SETH. See page 895.

CHENEY, WARD. See page 895.

CHÉNIER, ANDRÉ-MARIE DE, 1762-94; a French poet, b. in Constantinople. He undertook military life, but resigned his commission after six months' trial, and returned to Paris, where he wrote idyllic poems, such as Le Mendicant; L'Aveugle; and Le Jeune Malade. Overwork made a journey for health necessary, and he traveled in Switzerland, Italy, and the Grecian islands. Returning to Paris in 1786, he recommenced study and work, and produced the Elegies; Art d'Aimer; L'Invention; Hermes; Susanne, and La Liberté. From 1787 to 1790, he resided in London as a secretary to the French embassy, but neither the position nor the people were congenial, and he returned to France, plunging at once into the revolution, then well under way, taking the moderate side. In 1791, he was defeated as a candidate for a seat in the national assembly, and the next year an invective against the Jacobins involved him in a quarrel with his brother Joseph, whom he was afterwards to defend against the attack of Burke. When the hopes of the monarchy were gone, he returned to literature, but the trial of the king brought him once more forward, and he took part in preparing the defense, and also drew up an appeal to the people, He was broken in health and spirits; Paris was dangerous; and he went to Versailles, where he wrote poems to " Fanny." At Passy, Jan. 6, 1794, he opposed the arrest of a lady in whose house he was living, an act which resulted in his own seizure and incarceration in St. Lazare. Here he wrote La Jeune Captive for the duchess of Fleury, and for the convention the furious iambics so often quoted. At the tribunal he appeared with 44 others, and 38, including himself, were condemned to execution. The next day, July 25. 1794, he, with the counts de Montalembert and de Crequi, was led to death. As he descended the steps of the conciergerie, he said to Roucher, "Je n'ai rien fait pour la posterité. Pourtant" (striking his forehead), "j'avais quelque chose là." Three days later, in the same place, Robespierre and his fellows were executed, and the "reign of terror" was at an end. C.'s poems, with the exception of two, remained unedited for a quarter of a century.

CHÉNIER, MARIE JOSEPH DE, 1764-1811; poet and dramatist, younger brother of André Chénier; b. in Constantinople, and educated at the college de Navarre. He also served a short time in the army, but left it for literary composition, producing, at the age

Cherbourg.

of 20, Azemire, a tragedy which was not very successful. His next work, however, Charles XII., gave occasion for the commencement of Talma's renown, and gained great popularity. It still keeps the stage. Following these came Henry VIII. and Calas; in 1792, Caius Gracchus, which was proscribed and burned because of the anti-anarchical phrase "The law, and not blood;" and the drama Timoleon, proscribed in 1793. The death of his brother on the scaffold took him away from play-writing, which he attempted again only once (in 1804), when he produced Cyrus, which was not a success. He was long a prominent member of the Jacobin club; a member of the convention, and also of the council of five hundred, over both of which he presided; he had a seat in the tribunate, and belonged to the committees of public instruction, of general security, and of public safety. In 1806-7, he delivered a course of lectures, on the language and literature of France from the earliest period; and in 1808, at Napoleon's request, he prepared his Tableau Historique de l'Etat et du Progres de la Litterature Française. He was the author of many hymns, songs, and odes, among them the famous Chant du Depart; odes on the death of Mirabeau, the oligarchy of Robespierre, etc.; tragedies that never reached the stage, and translations from the Greek, Latin, and German authors. As a satirist he was said to possess great merit.

CHENONCEAUX, CASTLE OF. See BLÉRÉ,

CHENOPODIA CEE, or SALSOLA CEAE, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of herbaceous and, half-shrubby plants, with leaves entire or divided, and destitute of stipules. The flowers are inconspicuous, hermaphrodite, or unisexual; the perianth deeply divided, persistent; the stamens inserted into its base, opposite to its segments, and equal to them in number, or fewer; the ovary single, free, or occasionally adhering to the tube of the perianth, with a single ovule attached to the base of the cavity; the style generally with 2 to 4 divisions. The fruit is membranous, inclosed in the perianth, which sometimes becomes fleshy. The seed has a curved or spiral embryo.-There are about 360 known species, most of which have a weed-like appearance, and grow in waste places. They are widely diffused over the world, but are particularly abundant in the northern parts of Europe and Asia. Beet and spinage are among the best known and most useful plants of the order. Many are occasionally used as pot-herbs, as some species of chenopodium and of orache. The fruit of strawberry blite (blitum capitatum and B. virgatum), a common weed in the s. of Europe, has some resemblance in appearance to a strawberry, from the coherence of the fleshy perianths of a whole spike or head of flowers, and a sweetish, insipid taste. The seed of quinoa (q.v.) is used for food as a kind of grain. Some of the C. are aromatic (see CHENOPODIUM). Some inhabit saltmarshes, and abound in soda, as the saltworts (q. v.).

CHENOPO ́DIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order chenopodiacea, of which some of the native British species are well known by the name of GOOSEFOOT, as weeds grow. ing in gardens, on heaps of rubbish, and in waste places. The species are mostly annuals, with entire or toothed leaves, which in some of them have a sort of mealy hoariness. They are mostly natives of Europe, and of the temperate parts of Asia; but some are natives of America, into which, however, some of the common European species have found their way, and are naturalized as weeds. The genus has hermaphrodite flowers, with perianth of five small green scales, five stamens, and solitary flat seeds. The leaves of many species are used as a substitute for spinage, particularly those of the GOOD HENRY, WILD SPINAGE, or ENGLISH MERCURY (C. bonus Henricus), a perennial plant, native of Britain and other parts of Europe, often found growing by waysides, with stem more than a foot high, powdered with minute transparent globules, and large, alternate, triangular, arrow-shaped, entire leaves. It is cultivated in some places, particularly in Lincolnshire, chiefly for the leaves, but the young shoots are also used as asparagus. C. intermedium, C. album, etc., annuals, common in waste places, are also excellent substitutes for spinage. C. olidum or vulvaria (STINKING GOOSEFOOT), an annual with an extremely nauseous odor, growing in waste places in Britain, etc., especially near the sea, is a popular medicine, in much repute as an antispasmodic and eminenagogue. C. botrys, a native of the s. of Europe, with pinnatifid leaves resembling those of the oak, and hence called JERUSALEM OAK, is in use as an expectorant and anthelmintic. It is not fetid like the species last named, but agreeably fragrant. C. ambrosioides has a strong aromatic odor, is used in Mexico instead of tea, and is much cultivated in France, an infusion of it being deemed useful in nervous disorders. C. anthelminticum, the WORMSEED of the United States, has a strong and somewhat aromatic odor, and a high reputation as a vermifuge. Its seeds are chiefly used, or the essential oil extracted from them, called oil of wormseed. More important than any of these species, as affording a principal article of food in the countries of which it is a native, is quinoa (q. v.).

CHEOPS, according to Herodotus, an Egyptian king, called Chombes by Diodorus, Souphis by Manetho, Saophis by Eratosthenes, and in Egyptian "Khufu." He was the second king of the fourth dynasty of Manetho, and the builder of the great pyramid at Ghizeh. His name was supposed to mean "wealthy," or "having much hair." He spent enormous sums on the pyramid (see PYRAMID), and one improbable story is that he was compelled through want of money to sacrifice the honor of his daughter to insure its completion. He is also depicted as impious towards the gods, closing the