Catacombs.

bushy ravines of mountainous districts. Its fur is held in considerable estimation. The fur is soft, long, and thick. The color of the face is yellowish-gray, with a band of back spots towards the muzzle; the forehead is brown; the head is gray, with two black tnpes passing from the eyes, over and behind the ears; the back, sides, and limbs are gray, darker on the back, paler on the sides, with a blackish longitudinal stripe along the middle of the back, and numerous paler curved ones on the sides; the tail is ringed with light-gray and black, the tip being black. The length of a medium-sized male wild C. is almost 2 ft., exclusive of the tail, but this length is sometimes very considerably exceeded.-We know no record of any attempt to domesticate the wild cat. The animal often called wild C. in America is the bay lynx. See LYNX. Superstitions regarding Cats.—Cats have been objects of superstition from the earliest ages. In Egypt, they were held in the highest reverence; temples were erected in their honor; sacrifices and devotions were offered up to them; and it was customary for the family in whose house a C. died to shave their eyebrows. In the middle ages, they were regarded as the familiars of witches. The favorite shape of Satan was said to be that of a black C.; and the animal was an object of dread instead of veneration. There is or was a belief among sailors, that the frolics of a C. at sea portended a storm. Many people still prophesy rainy weather from a C. washing its face; and a cat-call on the housetop was formerly held to signify death. Their superstitious connection with witches, and the foolish belief that a C. has nine lives, have led to the perpetration of great cruelties upon this harmless and very useful domestic animal. See Brand's Popular Antiquities, Ellis's revised edition.

CAT, on shipboard, is a name for many of the ropes or lines employed. A cat-fall is a rope for heaving up the anchor from the water's level to the bow; it works through cat blocks, and is connected with the cat-head. Cat-harpings are small ropes for tightening the shrouds. The cat-heads, just nained, are two strong short timbers projecting from the bow, on each side of the bowsprit. A cat-hook fastens the ring of the anchor to the cat block.

CAT, or CAT-CASTLE, in the military engineering of the middle ages, was a kind of movable tower to cover the sappers as they advanced to a besieged place. The garrison sometimes poured down burning pitch and boiling oil from the walls upon the C.; but occasionally this stratagem was disastrous, for the besiegers availed themselves of the blazing tower to burn the wooden gates of the town or fortress.

CATABRO ́SA (Gr. catabrōsis, a gnawing), a genus of grasses formerly included in aira (see HAIR-GRASS), but distinguished by the leathery palea, which are ribbed, truncated, erose (as if gnawed at the points), awnless, and nearly equal. The glumes are much shorter than the spikelets, membranaceous, and very obtuse. The general appearance is different from that of the genus aira.-C. Aquatica is a pretty common British grass. It is of very wide geographic and climatic range, being found throughout Europe, from Lapland to the Mediterranean, and also in the torrid regions of South America. It grows only in very moist situations, as the muddy margins of lakes and rivers, ditches, etc., and is only cultivated in irrigated meadows, or on the banks of rivers subject to be overflowed by high tides, where the ground is always wet and muddy. It is one of the most valuable grasses for such situations, its foliage being peculiarly sweet, and much relished by cattle. Both its foliage and its seeds, also, afford much food to water-fowl, and to some kinds of fish, particularly carp. Its leaves often float, and its stalks seldom · rise more than a foot or 15 in, above the surface of the water. It has a stiff branching panicle, with whorled spreading branches, and its seeds are small. When its artificial propagation is attempted, it is more frequently by dropping freshly gathered stems into still waters, or scattering them on the mud, than by sowing the seeds. It is sometimes called WHORL GRASS, and sometimes SWEET WATER GRASS.

CATACOMBS (Gr. kata, and kumbos, a hollow), subterraneous chambers and passages formed generally in a rock, which is soft and easily excavated, such as tufa. Č. are to be found in almost every country in which such rocks exist, and, in most cases, probɛbly originated in mere quarries, which afterwards came to be used either as places of sepulture for the dead or as hiding-places for the living. The most celebrated catacombs in existence, and those which are generally understood when C. are spoken of, are those on the Via Appia, at a short distance from Rome. To these dreary crypts it is believed that the early Christians were in the habit of retiring, in order to celebrate their new worship, in times of persecution, and in them were buried many of the saints and martyrs of the primitive church. They consist of long narrow galleries, usually about 8 ft. high and 5 wide, which twist and turn in all directions very much resembling mines; and at irregular intervals, expand into wide and lofty vaulted chambers. The graves were constructed by hollowing out a portion of the rock, at the side of the gallery, large enough to contain the body. The entrance was then built up with stones, on which usually the letters D. M. (Deo Maximo), or XP., the first two letters of the Greek name of Christ, were inscribed. Other inscriptions and marks, such as the cross, are also found. The original extent of the C. is uncertain, the guides maintaining that they have a length of 20 m., whereas about 6 only can now be ascertained to exist, and of these, many portions have either fallen in or become dangerous. When Rome was besieged by the Lombards in the 8th c., many of the C. were destroyed, and the

Catalpa.

popes afterwards caused the remains of many of the saints and martyrs to be removed and buried in the churches. Art found its way into the C. at an early period, and many remains of frescoes are still found in them. After being neglected for centuries they were again brought to notice by father Bosio, who spent thirty years in their exploration. His investigations were published in 1632, two years after his death; but the most exhaustive treatise on the subject in all its aspects is the Roma Sotterranea of De' Rossi (1864-67), of which an abridgment is published in English by Dr. Northcote. The C. at Naples, cut into the Capo di Monte, resemble those at Rome, and evidently were used for the same purposes, being in many parts literally covered with Christian symbols. In one of the large vaulted chambers there are paintings, which have retained a freshness which is wonderful, considering the time and the dampness of the situation. The palm-tree, as a memorial of Judea, is a prominent object in these pictures. At Palermo and Syracuse there are similar C., the latter being of considerable extent. They are also found in Greece, in Asia Minor, in Syria, Persia, and Egypt. See NECROPOLIS. At Milo, one of the Cyclades, there is a hill which is honey-combed with a labyrinth of tombs running in every direction. In these bassi-rilievi and figures in terra-cotta have been found, which prove them to be long anterior to the Christian era. In Peru and other parts of South America, C. have been discovered. The C. in Paris are a species of charnel-houses. For illustrations of catacomb paintings, see illus., ROMAN ART, vol. XII., p. 742, figs. 3, 4; see also illus., BURIALS, ETC., p. 198, fig. 7.

CATAFALCO (Ital. a scaffold), or CATAFALQUE, a temporary structure of carpentry, intended to represent a tomb or cenotaph, and adorned with sculpture and painting. It was employed in funeral ceremonies. The most magnificent C. ever made, perhaps, was that used at the interment of Michael Angelo, at Florence.

CATAHOULA, a parish in Louisiana, on the Tensas, Black, and Saline rivers; 1770 sq.m.; pop. '80, 10,287-4558 colored. The soil is fertile, producing corn, cotton, etc. Seat of justice, Harrisonburg.

CATALA'NI, ANGELICA, a highly celebrated Italian singer, b. at Sinigaglia, in central Italy, some say in 1780, others in 1784, educated in the convent of St. Lucien, near Rome, where, in her seventh year, she displayed such wonderful vocal powers that strangers flocked from all quarters to hear her. She made her first public appearance at Venice in her 16th year, and experienced a succession of triumphs in every country in Europe for more than 30 years, amassing immense sums of money. The Italian opera in Paris was twice under her direction; but her husband's interference and extravagance brought her into much trouble. Her large queenly person and fine countenance, the immense volume, range, and flexibility of her voice, her power of sustaining her notes, in contrast with the lightness and facility of her unerring execution, everywhere took her audience by storm. Her expression, although fine, and her whole style, surprised rather than touched the heart. In concert singing, her great triumphs were in Rhode's air with variations, and God Save the King-which she would call shave; and in oratorios, Luther's hymn, her delivery of which, especially when her marvelous voice alternated with the trumpet's sound, was so sublimely awful, that the audience were hushed and pale, and some were borne away fainting. The throat from which these wondrous sounds proceeded was physically of such dimensions, that a physician, when called to look into it, declared he could have passed down a penny-loaf! In 1830, Madame C. purchased a villa near Florence, formerly belonging to the Medici family, where she gave free instructions to girls who had a talent for singing, on condition of their taking the name of Catalani. In the spring of 1849, when political disturbances broke out in Tuscany, she repaired with her daughters to Paris, where she died of cholera on the 13th of June.

CATALAUN'IAN PLAIN (Campi Catalaunici), the ancient name of the wide plain surrounding Chalons-sur-Marne, in the old province of Champagne, France, celebrated as the field of battle where the west Goths, and the forces under the Roman gen. Aëtius, gained a great victory over Attila in 451 A.D. A wild tradition (made the subject of a striking picture by Kaulbach, "Die Hunnenschlacht,' or "The Battle of the Huns") tells that three days after the great fight, the ghosts of the fallen myriads appeared on the plain, and renewed the conflict.

CATAL'DO, SAN, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta, and 5 m. w. of the town of that name. There are productive sulphur-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 15,000.

CATALEPSY (katalepsis, a taking possession of), a state of more or less complete insensibility, with absence of the power of voluntary motion, and statue-like fixedness of the body and limbs in the attitude immediately preceding the attack, a like position being also retained, unless altered by force, until the return of consciousness. Such is the abridged description of C., as commonly given in works of authority. The patient is usually in good health at the time of seizure, or subject only to nervous affections, such as hysteria (q.v.); sometimes the attack is preceded by disappointment, fear, violent exciting or depressing passions, or even religious emotions, being in such cases only an extreme form of what is otherwise called trance, reverie, or ecstasy (q.v.); on other occa sions, the apparent cause is more purely physical, as in some of the hysterical cases, depending on suppressed menstruation. In all cases of cataleptic rigidity and insensi

bility, it may be presumed that the brain, as the organ of consciousness, is disturbed; but it does not appear that in any considerable proportion there is structural disease. Patients rarely die during the attack, which may, however, be protracted for an indefinite period, and may even endanger life indirectly by the debility consequent on imperfect nourishment. The circulation and respiration are, in most instances, little affected; cases, however, have been recorded in which, in consequence of their failure, the patient has been supposed to be dead. See DEATH. Many of the recorded cases of C. are little worthy of credit, and it has even been doubted whether this curious disease can ever be said to exist exempt from some degree of deception, or at least voluntary and conscious regulation of the muscles on the part of the person affected. The combination of C. with hysteria, and its frequent association with what are called the higher phenomena of mesmerism (see ANIMAL MAGNETISM), are undoubtedly circumstances of great suspicion; but it would certainly be wrong to suppose that all the cases described were fictitious, and not less so to classify them all under the head of pure imposture. Epidemic C. has been described, and in such cases it would appear plain that the principle of imitation, so powerful in producing nervous disease, must have been at work. The remedies of C. are the same as those of the states to which it is so nearly allied, and of which it may be said to form a part. Moral means form a large part of the treatment, as in hysteria. In some cases, it may become necessary to adminster food by means of the stomachpump, and this even for weeks or months. We have seen such a case end in complete recovery.

CATALOGUE (Gr. a list). See BIBLIOGRAPHY, BRITISH MUSEUM, LIBRARY, STARS. CATALONIA (Spanish, Cataluña), an old province and principality of Spain, now divided into the provinces of Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida, and Gerona, the total area being 12,180 m., and the pop. 77, 1,781,067. C. occupies the north-eastern corner of Spain, having France on the n., and the Mediterranean on the e. and s.e. It is watered by the Llobregat and the Ter, and by some of the affluents of the Ebro, the last-mentioned river having its embouchure in Catalonia. The coast is rugged, its boldest promontories being capes Creus and San Sebastian, and its deepest indentations the bays of Rosas and Tarragona. With the exception of a few low plains of limited extent, the soil of C. is that of a wild mountainous region formed by numerous offsets or terraces of the Pyrenees, one great ridge or series of ridges extending through the center of the province.

The terraces, sloping abruptly down to the coast, or to the narrow coast plains, are divided by the valley of Llobregat into the lower and the upper Catalonian mountains. The climate of C., though fog and rain are frequent, and extreme and rapid changes of temperature prevail, is on the whole healthy and favorable to vegetation. Near Barcelona, oranges flourish in the open air; the fields in some parts are bounded by aloehedges, and olives grow on Montserrat. Cork-trees grow on the mountains, and thickets of thorn-apple, laurel, myrtle, pomegranate, box, rosemary, etc., extend where the cork has its limits. Northern upper C. has a more severe winter than the s.; but everywhere vineyards and olive-gardens cover the slopes, and cornfields extend in the valleys. Among the other products are hemp, flax, madder, barilla, and saffron. Hazel-nuts, a variety called Barcelona nuts, are extensively grown. Meadow-lands and pastures are comparatively rare, and horned cattle are, therefore, mostly confined to the districts bordering on the Pyrenees; while few horses and mules are kept; but sheep, goats, and swine are bred in considerable numbers. Silk-worms and bees are also reared. The coasts abound with fish, and game is plentiful. The minerals are coal, copper, manganese, zinc, lead, cobalt, salt, sulphur, and many varieties of marble.

C. is the principal manufacturing province of the kingdom-is, in fact, "the Lancashire of Spain." The inhabitants are neither French nor Spaniards, their language, costume, and habits being quite distinct from those of either; they have also local coins, weights, and measures. In energy, industry, and intelligence, they greatly surpass the rest of the Spaniards.

C., under the name of Hispania Tarraconensis, was one of the earliest, and remained among the last of the Roman provinces. It was invaded and captured by the Alans, who were followed by the Goths, hence its name Gothalania, changed into Gothalunia or Catalonia. In the 8th c., the Arabs gained possession of the southern part. When Charlemagne, in 788, subjugated Spain as far as the Ebro, C. formed the central portion of the Spanish mark, governed by French counts, having Barcelona as their residence. They soon made themselves independent of France. In 1137, earl Raymund Berengar, by his marriage, united C. with Aragon; and the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469) united both with Castile, and so C. became a portion of the Spanish monarchy, but never a very peaceable one. In modern times it has repeatedly taken a prominent share in Carlist or other insurrections.

CATALPA, a genus of trees of the order bignoniacea. The catalpa syringifolia is a native of the s. portion of the United States, and is cultivated there and in the cities of the northern states as an ornamental shade-tree. It may be known by silver-gray bark, wide-spreading but few branches, and the fine pale green of its large heart-shaped leaves. The flowers are white, tinged with violet or purple, and dotted with the same colors. The flowers are succeeded by long bean-like pods, that sometimes hang on the III.-18

otherwise bare limbs all winter. The wood is light and of fine texture, and useful in cabinet work. There is a catalpa in London said to have been planted by lord Bacon.

CATALYSIS (Gr. dissolution) is a term applied in chemical physics to a force supposed to be exerted by one substance upon a second, whereby the latter is subjected to change or decomposition, whilst the former, or acting substance, remains comparatively unaltered, and does not combine with it. The force, indeed, has been ascribed to the mere "action of contact." Fermentation is an example of this force (see BEER), when one part of yeast acting upon the sugar of the sweet worts, without entering into combination with it, compels 100 parts of sugar to pass into alcohol and carbonic acid. Germination, or the sprouting of grain when placed in the ground, is another example where one part of diastase changes 1000 parts of starch into sugar. No plausible theory has been brought forward to account for these changes, or to define what the force of C. is. Liebig has suggested, as an explanation, "that a body in the act of combination or decomposition enables another body with which it is in contact to enter into the same state;" but this view does not explain C., as that force does not act in the majority of cases where changes are proceeding, and, moreover, the acting substance, while changing itself, never throws the body acted upon into the same state of change, but causes it to assume a new series of changes different from those pursued by itself.

CATALYSOTYPE, a name given by its inventor, Dr. Wood, to a modification of the calotype process, upon the assumption that light set up a catalytic action (see CATALYSIS) among the ingredients employed. The paper is first washed with very dilute hydrochloric acid, to prevent the formation of yellow patches of insensitiveness, and then treated with sirup of iodide of iron containing a trace of free iodine; it is then partially dried between folds of blotting-paper, and sensitized by brushing over it a solution of nitrate of silver of ten grains to the ounce. Immediate exposure in the camera follows; after which, though no picture be visible at first, if it be allowed to remain in the dark for a period which varies with the length of time it was exposed, and the amount of light, a negative picture of great perfection is gradually developed. It is not necessary, however, for the explanation of this phenomenon, to assume, that a catalytic action is set up, inasmuch as the ordinary chemical reactions are quite sufficient to account for it. As soon as nitrate of silver comes in contact with the moist iodide of iron with which the paper is first imbued, an interchange of elements takes place, iodide of silver is precipitated in the pores of the paper, and protonitrate of iron is diffused over the surface; and this latter salt is even a more energetic developing agent than the ordinary gallic acid, hence the seemingly spontaneous appearance of the picture. This process is so uncertain in its results, that it is seldom practiced.

CATAMARAN' is a raft formed of three planks lashed together, the middle one serving as a keel, and the other two for the sides. The rower stands or kneels on the middle plank, and works a paddle. These simple vessels are used by the natives of Madras, to maintain communication between ships and the shore, ordinary boats being rendered unsafe by the surf. By the adoption of a similar construction on a larger scale, some of the catamarans are made large and strong enough to carry goods, and even artillery. Catamarans used in Brazil consist simply of three logs of wood tapered at the end and lashed together; they carry, a sail.

CATAMARCA, a province in the Argentine republic, between 25° and 29° s., and 66° and 69° w., lying at the foot of the Andes; 35,500 sq.m.; pop. '82, 102,000; the greater portion being of pure Indian blood. The province is intersected by several mountain-chains; and by many small streams, most of them dry in the summer, but in winter subject to destructive floods. Some of the plains are sandy deserts, while others are periodically inundated; and when the water dries away, it leaves a coating of salt, which is gathered for home use and for trade. Gold, silver, and copper are found, the latter in abundance; and nearly all the fruits and grains of tropical and temperate regions are grown. The cotton of C. is especially esteemed. Among the animals are large herds of alpaca, llama, and vicuna, and also horned cattle, asses, and mules. The main exports are wines, brandy, raisins, hides, leather, tobacco, cochineal, and copper. The people are occupied in agriculture, and in manufactures of earthenware, and fabrics made from the wool of the alpaca and kindred animals. The chief town and capital is the city of the same name.

CATAMARCA, the capital of the province of Catamarca, in the Argentine republic, 28° 20' s., 66° 25' west. It is a regular and moderately well-built town of about 6000 inhabitants. Of public buildings, there are a town-house, a Franciscan monastery, and a convent. There is considerable import-trade of European goods, and the place is a center of distribution for a flourishing district. Dried figs, wines, brandy, and cotton are the principal articles of export.

CATAME NIA. See MENSTRUATION.

CATAMOUNT. See PUMA.

CATA'NIA, or CATANEA, a city and seaport of Sicily, situated on the e. coast, near the foot of Mt. Etna, 31 m. n.n. w. of Syracuse. The fertile and well-cultivated neighborhood of C., extending along the s.e. base of Mt. Etna, is styled "the granary of Sicily," and has given to C. the title, "La Bella Catania." By eruptions of the great

Cataract.

volcano and attendant earthquakes, the city has been several times almost entirely destroyed, especially in the year 1693; but out of its ruins it has always risen with increased beauty, and it is now the finest city in Sicily, being built throughout on a beautiful and consistent plan, from which no deviation is allowed. The harbor of C., formerly good, was choked by a stream of lava in 1693, and the mole was partly destroyed, so that now it has only a roadstead, which is guarded by a fort, and serves as a landing-place. It has several squares, the finest of which, in front of the cathedral, ' has a statue of an elephant sculptured in lava. Among its chief public buildings are the Benedictine convent and church of San Nicolo, with one exception the grandest structure of the kind in Europe, the town-hall; the cathedral, with its noble granite columns; and the university, founded in 1445. It has besides many handsome churches and convents, and several educational and charitable institutions, and is the seat of one of the three high courts in the island. The inhabitants, formerly much more numerous, amounted in 1881 to 97,355, and are distinguished by their commercial spirit and industry. C. has manufactures of silk and linen goods, and of articles in amber, lava, wood, etc. Among the remains of ancient times, that earthquakes have spared, are those of a theater, an odeium, a temple of Ceres, Roman baths, and an aqueduct. C., anciently known by the name of Catana, was founded by a Greek colony of Chalcidic origin, in the latter part of the 8th c. B.C.; and as early as the beginning of the 5th c. B.C., it was esteemed one of the most flourishing towns in Sicily. It was taken by the Athenians under Nicias, and was desolated by Dionysius I.; but again rose under the Roman sway into its former importance. Augustus here founded a Roman colony. It suffered at the hands of the Goths, but once more, under the Byzantine empire, became one of the principal cities in the island. C. gives name to the province of which it is the capital, and which is one of the richest in Sicily, with an area of 1743 sq. miles, and a pop., in 1881, of 563,217.

CATA'NIA, GULF OF, an inlet of the Mediterranean, on the e. coast of Sicily, extends in the form of a semicircle from La Trezza bay to cape Santa Croce, a distance of 18 miles. It is about 10 m. deep, and receives the river Giaretta.

CATANZARO, a city of s. Italy, in the province of the same name, is beautifully situated on the declivity of a rocky hill, near the gulf of Squillace, and in the midst of a very fertile district. On account of its agreeable climate, many wealthy families have made it their residence. It has a cathedral, an old castle of the Norman period, a college, one of the largest, as it is one of the best conducted in the country, and is the seat of one of the four great civil courts of the kingdom. C. suffered very severely by an earthquake in 1783. It has manufactures of silk-velvet and woolen fabrics, and an active trade in agricultural produce. Pop.'81, 20,931.

CATAPLASM (a Greek term for a poultice), an application to diseased or painful parts, for the purpose of promoting suppuration, relieving pain, and stimulating or soothing the skin, according to circumstances. A C. may be composed of any moist pulpy substance of sufficient consistence to retain the water without dripping or soaking through the thin muslin covering in which it is generally wrapped. The making of a poultice well is a matter of some nicety, and unless the proper consistence is given to the mass, the application is apt to do more harm than good. The linseed-meal poultice is the most easily made, and most satisfactory of all soothing applications. The meal is stirred gradually into a sufficient quantity of boiling water, placed in the bottom of a small basin or teacup, until a perfectly smooth pulp is formed of the proper consistence, and in quantity sufficient to cover completely, to the thickness of three quarters of an inch, the whole pained part. The pulp is then folded up in muslin or thin calico, and applied as soon as the heat will permit it to be borne. The bread and milk, or even bread and water poultice, is also very good; as is also the oatmeal-porridge poultice, to which a little butter may be added with advantage. A spoonful or two of yeast may be added, if there are foul discharges, or peat charcoal may be sprinkled on the surface of the poultice before it is applied. Carrot poultices are in great favor with the people in some parts of the country. Hemlock poultices, made of the fresh leaves, or of the dried leaves, with the aid of some powder of the leaves, form a valuable sedative application in painful diseases; and poppyheads, or even opium, are sometimes infused in the water of which a poultice is made, for the same purpose. A stimulating C. or poultice may be made by sprinkling oil of turpentine, or chloroform, or mustard in moderate quantity on the surface of any ordinary poultice. When considerable irritation of the skin in a short time is desirable, a mustard C. or sinapism (sinapi, mustard) is used.

CATAPUL'TA, an engine of war used by the ancients, somewhat resembling the crossbow. In the C., a string or rope, suddenly freed from great tension, gave a powerful impulse to an arrow placed in a groove. There were great catapultas fixed upon a scaffold with wheels, which were used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the hand, which were employed in the field. See BALISTA AND ARBALEST. See illus., BATTERING RAMS, Vol. II., p. 306, fig. 5.

CATARACT, an opaque condition of the lens of the eye. It is readily distinguished from opacities of the cornea, or clear front part of the eye, by its position just behind the pupil-that round and varying aperture in the iris through which light is admitted