School Discipline and Government

Perhaps no phase of the Chinese modern educational system has been more adversely criticised than that relating to school discipline and government. For years after the adoption of the new educational system the student body was noted for its spirit of independence and unruliness. School riots and school strikes of one kind or another were of frequent occurrence. This unwholesome tendency to insubordination on the part of the students was sometimes attributed to their subverted conception of liberty and equality and sometimes to the peculiar nature of the student body, which often included persons quite advanced in age and thought. Such men came to school with ideas more or less formed and with a certain sense of personal pride which resented everything which they regarded as either encroaching upon their liberty or lowering their dignity. The fact that Chinese students as a class have been intensely nationalistic in spirit and eager to make their influence felt has also been responsible for some of the troubles. Moved by patriotism they seized every political crisis to hold mass meetings for the discussion of ways and means to meet the situation. Sometimes they sent telegraphic messages to the government counseling it as to how to solve particular problems of the state, often they went so far as to protest against the action of the government. Such behavior naturally was not encouraged by the authorities and in the attempt to suppress these outbursts of feeling, no small amount of friction was caused, and much trouble ensued.

This state of affairs was partly responsible for the poor discipline of the schools, but in many cases the cause of the troubles lay not so much in the students as in the inability of the school officials to cope with the situation through want of authority, lack of administrative ability, or unwillingness to use effective means owing to personal or other reasons.

Not infrequently the source of trouble was in the teaching body itself. Many of the teachers coming from the old school were not very sympathetic in their dealings with the students.. They were too overbearing and haughty in spirit and presumed upon their authority by riding roughshod over the opinions. of the students. On the other hand there were others who were too slack in establishing and maintaining discipline because

they were either ignorant of their responsibility or indifferent to it. In short, many of the teachers were unprepared both in mind and in spirit for the work of teaching.

The problem of school discipline, however, is no longer so serious as it used to be. The troubles seem to be largely transitory in nature and characteristic of the period when necessary readjustments must be made, new relationships formed, and new standards of right and wrong set up. Indeed, a great change for the better has taken place during the last few years. The type of students now in school is much better than that of five years ago. There is not only a general manifestation of good discipline in the institutions, but the erroneous idea of liberty and equality seems to be fast disappearing. The students are now less inclined to dictate terms to the government in the matter of politics. They seem to realize that students, after all, are students, and that as students they are not full-fledged citizens and have no voice in practical politics. This change for the better is generally attributed to two causes: first, those entrusted with the management of schools have been given greater power in their sphere; and, second, there has been an influx into the schools of a higher type of teachers and administrative officers, who have not only devoted years to the special study of education, but who also possess truer and higher ideals of life. There is every reason to believe, therefore, that the problem in question will sooner or later be eliminated.

Meanwhile, something fundamental should be undertaken in order to remedy the evil at an early date. Greater care should be taken in placing men at the head of schools. Only men of administrative ability and strong character should be secured to act as principals. These should be given all the authority rightly attached to the office. Better teachers should be trained and their service utilized. In addition, the number of school activities which tend to develop in students the virtue of selfcontrol and the habit of observing order should be multiplied. Above all, a greater degree of cooperation should be developed not only between the faculty and the higher authorities, but also between students and school officers. Some form of selfgovernment which would give the students opportunity to participate in all affairs affecting the order and government of the school should be widely introduced. Care, however,

must be taken to see that such attempts are not made in too abrupt a manner. Experience in America shows that where this method has been adopted as a remedy for the effects of poor discipline, or unwise management, it has usually failed.10 If the restraints of external control are too suddenly removed and a school is thrown back upon itself without some preparation for self-government, the strain is apt to be too great and disaster ensues. This explains the reason why the transition from entire control by the teacher to government by the students, must be gradual and wisely directed to overcome the tendency to license or anarchy. Success in introducing such schemes of self-government is also dependent upon a clear recognition on the part of the school authorities and the students of their respective spheres of influence. The former should realize the limit of their own dominion of control, and the latter should be willing to respect and obey the legitimate authority of teachers and administrative officers.

The Financing of the New Educational System

The problem of financing the new educational system has been a matter of extreme difficulty. Under the old system of education all that was needed was sufficient funds to defray the expenses of the competitive examination system and to support the few colleges that were found in large cities. With the introduction of the modern system of education there was suddenly created a demand for an outlay greatly out of proportion to the funds available under the old regime. In order to carry out the new educational policy buildings had to be secured and furnished, teaching materials and text-books provided, and teachers who have had sufficient preparation employed. Under the old system all the government needed to do was to provide educational facilities for a few; now the plan is to extend education to all. To meet the heavy expense which this changed policy of education entails is therefore a difficulty well nigh insurmountable.

The ways and means by which the government launched the new system are full of interest to those who are concerned with the administration of education. Briefly, the funds for the

10 Dutton and Snedden: Administration of Public Education in the United States, p. 514.

maintenance of the educational policy were included as one of the regular items of the national and provincial budgets. The sources of revenue for educational purposes were various. The statistical report of the Ministry of Education for 1910 classified the various incomes under the following items: (1) Income from public property; (2) interest from deposits; (3) governmental appropriations; (4) public funds; (5) tuition and fees; (6) compulsory contribution; (7) voluntary contributions; and (8) miscellaneous sources of income." The ways by which some of these items of money were raised are extremely interesting and at times pathetic. In many instances the old colleges were converted into modern schools. Oftentimes the money formerly devoted to religious processions, theatrical exhibitions, and clan ancestral halls was put into the school fund. For a time temples and monasteries of the Buddhists and Taoists were converted into schools, and temple lands and incomes were appropriated to educational purposes. Official recognition was given to encourage private munificence. Frequently private gifts of large amount were made even without the solicitation of officials or the hope of reward. The enthusiasm for education also found expression in great personal sacrifices and even in martyrdom. The cases of such heroic devotion and self-sacrifice in the cause of education, if collected, would fill volumes of pathetic reading, and would reflect the wonderful devotion of the Chinese people to ideals. Some of the provinces increased the rate of certain local taxes, but such increases are said to have been generally small. In the Province of Hunan alone has there been a considerable surplus of money derived in this way at the disposal of the educational authorities. 12 Since the establishment of the republic the practice of increasing the rate of local taxes for educational purposes has become more general, but as yet no system of general taxation has been evolved.

The solution of the problem of financing the new educational system is dependent upon the larger problem of the national revenue system. Thus far the fiscal aspect of China's national life has been far from satisfactory. Under the Manchu regime financial matters were often controlled by unscrupulous officials,

11 Reinsch, Paul S.: Intellectual and Political Currents in the Far East, pp. 206-208. 12 Statistical Report of the Ministry of Education, 1910.

and the markets of China were frequently swept by devastating tides of financial insolvency which shook the foundation of many colleges and schools and threatened collapse. The revolutions which came in succession also played havoc with China's finances, and some years must elapse before their effect upon the balance of the government's revenue and expenditure ceases to be felt. It has been estimated that the first revolution alone cost China in additional public expenditures and private losses a sum of about taels 230,000,000 aside from the complete cessation of internal revenue for several months.13 It is no wonder that during the last few years national deficits have been incurred and internal and foreign loans have been necessary. The financial chaos has been intensified by the fact that the financial system itself has been out of order owing to the inability to discriminate between the government tax and local tax and also to the conflict between the central and the provincial government. The local government at times fails to send its tax to the provincial government; while the provincial government often tries to send to the central government as little as possible of its collected taxes. Happily an earnest effort is being made to reorganize the national as well as the provincial system of finance with a view to placing them on a sounder basis.14

In the meantime the matter of financing the new educational system remains as one of China's unsolved problems. Under such circumstances two immediate steps might be taken. One is to avoid all unnecessary expenditure. This would mean that educational funds should be in no wise misappropriated; that the number of non-teaching offices which are mere sinecures must be reduced, or better still, entirely eliminated; that no expensive apparatus should be bought until the teacher and students who can make use of it are secured; and that no extravagance in the erection and furnishing of buildings should be permitted. The second step is to encourage private initiative. This means that private schools should be encouraged, that the old-style schools be reformed or improved through a system of awards and other devices, and that every effort put forth in China by the educators of the West should be given

13 China Year Book, 1913, p. 305.

14 Republican Advocate, Vol. II, No. 16, p. 635; also Vol. I, No. 27, p. 1145.