young. Every teacher understands the difference exhibited in the capacity for acquiring rudimentary knowledge at the respective ages of seven and fourteen. Childhood is the period for acquiring rudimentary knowledge in every department of study. Then, there is no impatience felt at slow progress; no haste to get on to something apparently more attractive. And, to acquire perfect manual dexterity, either at the piano or the easel, the scholar must begin to practice in childhood. In the instruction of this branch as well as that of mathematics there is but one right way. Let the teacher first give the child some exercise in curves and circles, without reference to drawing from any model, at the same time holding his pencil properly. This requires that the wrist should rest upon the table, leaving the whole hand free for action. The drawing of curves in every direction, with the wrists so rested, will be found a perfectly easy and natural exercise of the hand. There is no better preliminary exercise than the drawing of a circle, guided by the eye; not to make one, and then another, and so on for twenty in succession, and leaving them imperfectly done; the scholar should correct and improve each one according to his ability; dividing it by straight lines into halves and quarters of circles, depending on his eye alone for guidance. This is all the preliminary practice required in straight lines. In drawing straight lines for this purpose, he does not find it irksome, for he has an object in view. On the contrary, nothing is more tedious or more useless than drawing straight lines merely for the exercise. The straight line may always be corrected by the ruler. The great point in practice is to make the curve, and this should be the first object aimed at; for, the infinite variety of curves required in the practice of art no instrument can define, no ruler can rectify.

The ability to draw a straight line has been considered a test of native capacity. This is one of the mistakes of ignorance. Let the teacher question the scholar in regard to the division of his circle, and if he can not see when one part exceeds the other in size as marked by his line, he has no eye for form, and will not progress by practice. If his eye is capable of measuring so as to detect a difference, it will improve by practice, and he will, in time, if made to depend upon his eye, learn to discriminate the nicest variation of curve. This is of first importance. Do not forbid measuring; but, encourage independent action and self-reliance in every effort.

The first step is to imitate some simple form which gives practice in the curve. The object itself is preferable to the representation of the same thing on paper; and, the scholar should, from the outset, be

accustomed to making his own representations of objects. If he does not begin with that, (and it is just as easy for him,) he does not know when to change. After having first drawn from prints, beginning with the imitation of form is just like commencing anew. From simple objects he should go on gradually to more difficult, always improving and correcting his drawings. The teacher should require him to correct his own work; point out the faulty part, then let him study the form of the object before him, carefully comparing his own imitation of it, correcting and improving his lines, until he has accomplished all that he is capable of doing at that stage of progress. This is the most important part of his exercise; and, to accomplish his task well, he must apply himself to drawing as to a study. The teacher should render assistance according to his judgment, and, by his own lines, show the scholar, if a better curve can be made than his own.

In this method of instruction the class will not fail to be interested. In one school, where the instruction given was limited to mechanical copying, the class anticipated the lessons with a feeling of dislike. Casts are now introduced as the models for study, and the scholars have become so much interested that the time given to the lesson is considered too short. They are interested because they feel that they are acquiring skill with the pencil, and really understand the value of the lesson to which the hour is appropriated.

[The following extract from a letter from Prof. Phelps, Principal of the State Normal School of New Jersey, in which a pupil of Miss Dwight has taught Drawing after her method, bears the strongest testimony in its favor.]

It gives me very great pleasure to bear unequivocal testimony to the exccllence of the method of drawing which has been in use here during the past year. The progress made by our classes, in view of the limited period during which they have been under instruction, is altogether unexampled in my experience or observation. The lively interest exhibited by the pupils, and the genuine love for the study of art which this method has inspired, give it precedence over any other with which I am acquainted. Indeed, I believe Miss Dwight has developed the true idea, and that it is destined to work out a radical revolution in this important department of school instruction.

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XV. CATECHISM ON METHODS OF TEACHING.

TRANSLATED FROM DIESTERWEG'S "ALMANAC," (Jahrbuch,) FOR 1855 AND 1856,

BY DR. HERMANN WIMMER.

I. INTUITIONAL INSTRUCTION, (Anschauungsunterricht,) BY A. DIESTERWEG.

1. What is the object of intuitional instruction?

To prepare the child who has just entered the primary school, for formal school instruction.

2. What is therefore its external position in the course of instruction?

It forms as it were the bridge from the liberty of home life to the regular discipline of the school; it is in regard to instruction, an intermediate between home and school.

3. What is to be effected by it?

The children are to learn to see and to hear accurately, to be attentive, to govern their imaginations, to observe, to keep quiet, and to speak distinctly and with the right emphasis.

4. With what objects must this preparatory education deal; having in view a "formal" aim, but no acquisition of knowledge?

Perceptible or perceived objects; hence its name. It has a two-fold meaning; real observation by the senses, especially by eye and ear,-and such management, by the teacher that the objects, their qualities and conditions, are made vivid interior perceptions.

5. By what do we know that its end is attained?

By the whole appearance of the children, and particularly by their correct and proper speech and pronunciation, which can not be valued too highly from the first beginning.

6. What is the beginning of this instruction?

After a conversation about father and mother, to gain their confidence, and after some directions concerning the mode of answering and behaving in the school-room, the first thing is to observe the room and its contents. The pupil is to be made acquainted with all around him; he must learn to see, to name, and to describe exactly, all objects in the room.

7. What must be chiefly attended to from the first day?

(a) A clear, emphatic statement in complete sentences. E. g. What sort of thing is this? This thing is a chair, etc.

(b) A comprehensive view of all qualities observed in an object, at the conclusion of each exercise. This is of the greatest importance in all instruction. 8. What is the second step?

Observation of the whole school, school-house, road, village or town, in their external qualitics.

9. The third?

Observation of some of the animals in the place, and of man.

10. What next?

This depends on circumstances. In general, it may be said, that the result of this instruction may be secured by from four to six hours a week during the first year. The duller the children are, the longer it must be continued. It may be further extended to the trees and plants of the neighborhood, the trades and employments of the people in the place, clouds, weather, wind, fire, water, sun, moon, stars, etc.; in short, to all objects accessible to real observation. Accurate contemplation or description of models of mathematical bodies may also be very advantageous. The teacher should draw the streets and houses of the place before the eyes of the pupils on the blackboard; he may resort to “Stäbchenlegen,” (laying down small sticks; see Diesterweg's Kleinkinderschule, (Primary School,) fifth edition, and Stangenberger's book;) he may use the picture tables; in one word, he may arrange any variety of useful exercises to attain the important end. It is least possible in this branch, to prescribe in books a regular and equal course to all.

Of the greatest importance, we may repeat, is the way in which the children speak and pronounce. A teacher who is unmindful of this, prepares trouble for his whole professional career. Instruction in teaching, if the teacher understands it, is at the same time instruction in language. It is not, however, instruction in grammar; yet it leads to the understanding of the language, and to attention to words and expressions in general. Not only the nouns, adjectives and verbs, but the prepositions and conjunctions also, should be managed without the mention of their names, but by using practical examples of them. It is not the object to explain these words, but to use them correctly by means of a variety of exercises.

The best manuals for the Intuitional Method direct such instruction, and the teacher shows his skill in the suitable choice of objects, and especially in the varied and attractive treatment of them. Less depends on the selection of what is to be discussed, than on the way in which the attention of the children is secured. If the proverb "Every way is good except the tiresome" be true any where, it is true here. As soon as the children get tired, the subject must be dropped. Success depends entirely on the activity of the children. This is true, indeed, of all teaching, but preeminently so where knowledge and techni cal ability are not aimed at, but only an awakening of the slumbering faculties, a "formal" end. Attention, liveliness, a desire to observe, and to answer, etc., are the measures for judging of success.

If the result is secured, i. e., if the pupil is prepared for learning, the teacher leaves this instruction and advances to study proper, which is likewise intuitional. That is, he proceeds always from facts, from real, undeniable and undisputable facts. The importance of this principle is not yet enough understood, nor has the subject been exhausted by teachers or educators.*

II. INSTRUCTION IN READING, BY HONCAMP.

Reading Writing together (Schreib-Lese-Unterricht.)

1. Shall the first instruction in reading be begun in connection with the first instruction in writing?

Most certainly, for reading and writing are most intimately connected. *Harder, in his manual, (Altona, 1853,) differs from these views so far as he makes this instruction the basis of real instruction, and likewise real instruction itself. "But where matter dominates," says Kalisch, " pedagogical management and general cultivation is at an end; for to the teacher, matter is secondary."

2. Was instruction in the former separated from the latter in olden times? From ancient times writing was accompanied by reading; but not until modern times, (since Graser,) has reading been connected with writing, in all its steps.

3. Is this method according to nature?

It is natural, because reading and writing are properly but two different sides of the same thing, i. e., of the written language.

4. But is it not easier, first to practice the one, and not to practice the other, until the greater difficulties of the former are mastered?

Quite the contrary. Reading and writing assist each other mutually, and experience teaches, that the first instruction in either, is made more efficient by their union.

5. In what way shall they be connected?

The teacher can either (analytically) view the spoken word as a sound, and then have it (synthetically) represented by the signs for the sounds, i. e., the letters, in which case writing is prior; or he may first view the written (printed) word as a representation of the sound, (analytically,) and then have it (synthetically) reproduced by pronouncing or reading-in which case reading is prior. We have, therefore, either a Lese (reading)-Schreib (writing)-Methode, or a Schreib-Lese-Methode,-(Writing-reading-method.)*

6. What may be said in favor of the reading-writing method?

Writing always precedes reading; the inventor of writing did it for reading's sake; he wrote first, and then he read. Hence, instruction in reading must be joined to instruction in writing.

7. What may be said in favor of the reading-writing-method?

In answering this question we take, not the place of the inventor of writing, but of him to whom he first communicated his invention; the inventor taught him first to read and then to write, and in like manner, according to nature, we must proceed now.

8. Which method is to be preferred?

It is nearly indifferent, either in regard to subject or result, whether we put the pupil in the more artificial place of the first inventor, or in the more natural place of the first pupil.

9. What rules must be observed in the adoption of either?

Reading and writing must always be intimately connected; the elements of the word must be found by analysis, and made the basis of study; and only such words and syllables must be read and written, as have a meaning for the pupil.

* Reading is always analytical, writing synthetical; but the method of teaching may be different. If reading be separated from writing, the proceeding may be

(1,) Synthetical; where the letter is given, and with it either (a) the name of the letter without the sound-buchstabirmethode, spelling method; or (b) the sound (laut) of the letter without the name-lautirmethode, phonetic method; or (c) the sound and the name of the letter, spelling and phonetic method combined, (Wilging's, Kawerau's ;) or

(2) Analytical; where the pupil reviews the written (printed) matter as a whole, that he may resolve it into its elements. The whole is (a) a proposition or sentence, (Jacotot's method;) (b) a word, (Gedike's method ;) or

(3,) Analytico-synthetical; the child, to become prepared for reading, is made to resolve sentences into words, words into syllables, syllables into sounds, and then the teacher proceeds by the combined method. See Jacobi's book on these methods; also Honcamp's "Volksschule," No. 10, p. 20.

In the Schreib-Lese Methode, (and vice versa,) it is well to give also the name of the sound and letter.