hours of labor. The United States government had long before made ten hours of work a legal day's labor for all its employees. Workmen in other lines of business protested against being required to work longer in the course of a day than government workers did. Some even began demanding still less work-only eight hours every day. Of course all these reductions in the time of the working day compelled the corporations to employ more men and cost them more money. The employers all tended to act together to prevent the shortening of the day's work, and the workmen began associating together to oppose the employers. The first successful association for this purpose was the Knights of Labor (1869). It was followed by others. Before long, in almost every trade, the workmen had organized a union—a society which in many cases fixed the number of hours its members should work each day and the price they should demand. Between these two sets of organizations—the corporations, on the one hand, and the labor societies, on the other-there were bitter disputes.

368. Colorado Admitted; Philadelphia Exposition. In the hundredth year of our independence the Centennial state, Colorado, was admitted to the Union. The hundredth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence was celebrated by a great international exposition held at Philadelphia. Buildings which covered about seventy-five acres contained a wonderful display of the wealth and resources of the United States. But the most remarkable part of the display consisted of machinery. The thousands of new machines exhibited at Philadelphia showed that the old days, when most of the labor of men was handwork, were gone forever. The Age of Machinery had begun.

Our great achievement in the nineteenth century is the utilization of our own enormous country. A large part of this achievement was the development of the West. In 1869 the first railway across the continent was completed. These great corporations, owning enormous tracts of the most desirable Western land, changed the conditions of Western life. They attracted settlers. New towns, naturally, were formed around railroad stations. The favoritism shown by the railroads led Congress to intervene by legislation aimed to reduce their influence. Meanwhile, another sort of powerful business corporation had become a feature in American life. Various trusts aimed to monopolize entire industries. These, also, Congress has tried to control but not with much success. The growth of corporations-railroads, trusts, other great commercial organizations-alarmed the workingmen, who began organizing labor societies to offset these powerful money societies. During the ten years following the War of Secession several Indian wars were necessary to protect the new settlements in the West. The rapid occupation of the West was indicated by the admission of Colorado in 1876. The same year the Centennial Exposition was held in celebration of the hundredth anniversary of our independence.

AIDS TO STUDY

For the Teacher: ANDREWS, United States, chap. xi; BASSETT, United States, chaps. xxxii, xxxv; *BECKER, United States, chap. vi; Bogart, Economic History, chaps. xxv, xxix, xxxii; *BRIGHAM, Geographic Influences, chaps. viii, ix; CALLENDER, Economic History of the United States, chap. xiv; DEWEY, National Problems, chaps. iii, xii, xviii; HENDRICK, The Age of Big Business (Chronicles of America); MACDONALD, Source Book, 581-590; MOODY, The Railroad Builders (Chronicles of America); MUZZEY, Readings, 481–493; *PAXSON, The New Nation, chaps. ii, ix, x, xviii; SPARKS, National Development, chaps. iv, v, xiv, xv.

For the Pupil: BARSTOW, The Westward Movement, chap. xxii; FARIS, Real Stories from Our History, chaps. xxviii-xxx, xli; Guitteau, Preparing for Citizenship, chap. xviii; HITCHCOCK, The Louisiana Purchase, chap. xxiv; LOMAX, Cowboy Songs and other Frontier Ballads; PAXSON, The Last American Frontier, chaps. xiii, xxii; TALbot, My People of the Plains.

PROBLEMS AND REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What was the great achievement of the Americans in the nineteenth century? 2. We made our democracy a great power in the world through our success in two lines of endeavor. What were they? [3. Describe the westward march of the American people. (See Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, chap. vii; Brigham, Geographic Influences, chaps. viii-xi; Bruce, Romance of American Expansion; Faris, Real Stories, chap. v; Garrison, Westward Extension, chaps. i-xvi; Paxson, The New Nation, chaps. ii, vi, ix.)] [4. Draw on a map the approximate frontier of settlement in 1800, 1825, and 1850, using the same references as in problem 3.]

[5. Describe an early journey across the continent; for example, the Donner party or Whitman's party or a company of Forty-niners. (Use the same references as in problem 3; also Bourke, On the Border with Crook; Parkman, The Oregon Trail; Skinner, Adventurers of Oregon; White, The Forty-Niners.)] [6. Write a brief account of the building of the Union Pacific Railroad. (See Barstow, Progress of a United People, 135-140; Bassett, United States, 680-683; Moody, The Railway Builders, chap. viii; Paxson, The New Nation, 20-26; Last American Frontier, chap. xiii.)]

[7. Review the history of the public lands down to the passing of the Homestead Act (see sections 185, 186, 289, 362; also Becker, The United States, chap vi).] 8. How was the West changed by the rapid immigration that followed the building of the railroads? [9. What was the condition of our Pacific commerce and how was it affected by the railroads (see sections 283, 365)?] 10. How did the railroads attempt to control the settlers along their lines? II. As the railroads grew in power other great corporations arose. Explain what you mean by "corporation." What did the Standard Oil Company try to do? 12. What have trusts done that has made them unpopular? 13. How do workingmen feel toward trusts? Why? 14. Explain what you mean by a union? 15. What was demonstrated by the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876?

CHAPTER XXII

INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS AND MONEY PROBLEMS

RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, NINETEENTH PRESIDENT

369. The Contested Election of 1876. President Grant served two terms. The Republican candidate for president in 1876 was Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio; the Democratic candidate, Samuel J. Tilden of New York. The election was very close. Feeling was intense, and owing to inaccuracies in the records of the voting in several states both parties claimed the election. To settle the matter an electoral commission was appointed by Congress; it consisted of five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. Eight members of the commission were Republicans; seven were Democrats. The commission decided only two days before the inauguration, by a party vote of eight to seven, that Hayes had been elected.

370. The Southern Problem. The most urgent problem confronting the new president was the condition of the