is admitted to the "Abiturienten-Examen," which admits to the universities.

The secondary schools which have only a six years' course also carry for their pupils the advantage of the one-year volunteer service. The latest statistics, which pertain to the year 1911, give a total of 306,426 students in the three classes of secondary schools having the full course of nine years. Of this total, 53 per cent were in the Gymnasia, or classical schools, and 47 per cent in the Realschulen. In the schools having only a course of six years a very large proportion of students, viz, 92 per cent, were in the two classes of Realschulen.

A very recent analysis of the statistics gives the number of the reform institutions as 184; of these, 158 are found in the several classes of Realschulen, which number altogether 1,082 institutions; of the Gymnasia and Progymnasia, numbering 605, only 26 follow the reform programs.1

SECONDARY EDUCATION FOR GIRLS.

Secondary education for girls continues to excite earnest discussion in Germany, and more particularly in Prussia, where girls are not admitted to the secondary schools for boys, as they are in several German States. The higher schools for girls in Prussia, as organized under the regulations of 1908, do not offer the same courses of instruction as the secondary schools for boys (Gymnasia and Realschulen), or, in other words, they do not prepare directly for admission to the universities which were opened to women in 1908, the year of the so-called reform of the higher girls' schools.

Under the existing regulations the course of study for the "higher girls' school" proper covers 10 years, of which 3 years are preparatory. After completing the full course, the student may enter upon any one of three courses known as Studienstalten, which lead to the Reifeprüfung. Thus after 13 years' study, including the preparatory course, pursued under great difficulties, as against the 12 years covered by the Vorschule and the Gymnasium for boys, a young woman may finish preparation for the university. Dissatisfaction with the condition is increased by the advanced requirements for the teachers of the higher girls' schools. The associations of women wage a vigorous campaign against these unjust discriminations, in which they are supported by liberal-minded men. It is generally admitted that the reform of the higher girls' school started by the regulations of 1908 must end in giving the women of Prussia equal scholastic opportunities with the men.

1 See Kommunals-Jahrbuch, 1913-14, p. 362.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

As this chapter goes to press announcement is received of the opening ceremony of the new university at Frankfort on the Main, which took place October 18, 1914. Although this event is later than the period covered by the present survey, it is the culmination of plans which took definite shape in 1912 and were so far advanced at the beginning of the current year that it was expected students would be admitted for the summer term.

The total registration at the 121 German universities in the summer semester of 1913 was 60,346 and at the 8 higher technical schools 16,418 students.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

SYSTEM OF GENERAL EDUCATION.

The educational system of the two divisions of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, although distinct from each other, present many similar features. In both divisions of the country the progress of education, particularly as related to the masses of the people, is too involved with political and racial conditions for the full application of the principles embodied in the school law. The standards of secondary and university education are practically the same as those of Germany, and systems of industrial and technical education are well developed in both divisions of the monarchy.

ILLITERACY.

Elementary education is compulsory by law in the two divisions of the dual monarchy. Nevertheless the degree of illiteracy is high in both. In Austria this appears to be largely the result of lax administration, and efforts have recently been made to increase school attendance in this Empire, or rather to correct the evils of irregular attendance and early withdrawal. In respect to the mere matter of school enrollment, the record is not bad, as compared with other countries. Thus in 1911 the enrollment in elementary schools was very nearly 16 per cent (15.9) of the population and 92 per cent of the children of school age (6 to 14). The ratio of illiterates to the population above 10 years of age ranges, however, from 60 in every 1,000 inhabitants in the principal Provinces up to 736 in 1,000, reported for Dalmatia. These conditions are attributed to the indifference of local authorities, and the demand has become urgent that the State shall establish a vigorous supervision over elementary schools and at the same time assist the poorer districts by large appropriations for support.

As regards Hungary, the charge is made that the Magyars, the dominant race, while freely supporting higher education, are indifferent to the education of the people, and further, that they exclude other races in the Kingdom from their full share in the educational provisions. The latter charge is apparently confirmed by official statistics. For instance, in 1911 there were 59 Magyar students in secondary schools (Gymnasia and Realschulen) for every 10,000 of that race. On the contrary the Roumanians, who in their own Kingdom are ambitious scholars, had only 14 students in the secondary schools for every 10,000 of their people. Equal disparity is noticeable in other secondary and higher institutions, not only as regards the Roumanians, but all non-Magyar races within the borders of the Kingdom.

Without considering further the bearing of these statistics, it is significant that the Hungarian census for 1910 gave 43.6 per cent of the population as illiterate. It should, however, be observed that the ratio had declined below that shown in the two preceding censuses; namely, 47.7 per cent, census of 1900; 54.5 per cent, census of 1890.

STATISTICS.

From the statistics given below, it appears that the enrollment in elementary schools in Austria for the latest year, 1911-12, was equivalent to 16 per cent of the population (28,324,940, census of 1910). The corresponding statistics for Hungary give an enrollment in primary schools in 1911-12 of 14 per cent of the population (20,886,487, census of 1910).

Statistics of primary and secondary schools in Austria, 1911-12.

1 Including 32 secondary schools for girls, with 4,797 pupils.

Higher education.-In the winter semester of 1913-14 the 8 universities of Austria registered 31,646 students, including 2,701 women. There are also 49 theological colleges belonging to the different denominations, with a registration of 1,945 students.

The system of technical education includes 8 higher institutions maintained by the Government, with a total registration (1913-14) of 12,130 students. There are also above 6,000 specialized technical institutes, with an annual attendance of about 410,000 students.

Statistical summary of primary and secondary schools in Hungary.

Austria was one of the first countries in Europe to recognize the importance of the higher orders of technical instruction, the Royal Technical High School, established at Prague in 1806, and that of Vienna, established in 1815, being the oldest institutions of the class in Central Europe, and on the entire Continent preceded only by the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, created at Paris in 1794. The organization of "Realschulen," or secondary schools having special reference to the preparation of young men for practical life, had been already authorized (1804); so that Austria was committed to the movement of modern education early in the nineteenth century. The downward extension of the movement, as measured by the number of secondary technical schools and industrial continuation schools, has been somewhat slower than in the neighboring nations of Germany and Switzerland. The difference is partly due to the more highly centralized control, with less local initiative, characteristic of Austria, and partly to the differences in race and language and industrial developments in different parts of the Empire. Under the system of centralized control, however, some important agencies have developed which are exceedingly helpful to all communities and to schools which provide either technical or industrial training.

The ministry of public works, which has charge of industrial schools, maintains a bureau of school apparatus and equipments which in its practical effects is the most important of the central agencies.

Experts are employed by the bureau to examine all materials submitted and test their utility for school use. The bureau itself also manufactures new apparatus, stimulates educational institutions to do the same by offering prizes for the approved products, provides traveling exhibits of apparatus and supplies, and organizes lecture courses on industrial subjects.

School supplies are obtained for the bureau by purchase of models submitted for prizes and by the manufacture carried on at the bureau and in the workshops or studios of the State schools. The latter are under obligation to cooperate in the production of material for the bureau, so far as may be possible without interfering with their ordinary work.

The activities of the bureau of apparatus and supplies are specialized through subdivisions as follows: Art-trades department; textile department; department for continuation schools; chemical-technical department; and an institution for teaching and investigating the graphic arts.

The remaining central institutions include: The Austrian Museum of Art and Industry, with two affiliated industrial art schools; the Technological Industrial Museum, noted for the admirable classification of its specialized collections; and a group of institutions for teaching and research pertaining to leading industries-leather industry, art embroidery, lace work, basketmaking, and patternmaking.

All the central institutions furnish models that are loaned upon application to State schools in different parts of the country, and the visits of teachers to these institutions is encouraged often by appropriations to defray their expenses.

STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS.

The State industrial schools (Staatsgewerbeschulen) were created by decree of 1875. They comprise general industrial schools (Die allgemeine gewerbliche Schulen) and special schools for certain industries (Fachschulen). They number at present 16, of which the principal are 2 at Vienna and 1 at each of the following cities: Salzburg, Gratz, Trieste, Innsbruck, and Prague. The school at Gratz, which may be taken as typical, has about 40 teachers and 300 students. It comprises---

I. School for overseers (Werkmeisterschule), with an industrial construction division having special schools for building industries, in the narrow sense, for carpenters, stonemasons, joiners, and for ironworkers, and also art-industrial division, with special schools, as follows:

(a) School for decorative painters.

(b) School for ceramics, for modelers, for pottery painting, etc.

(c) School for wood industries, turners, cabinetmakers, wood carvers, etc.

(d) For metal industries, chasers, engravers, decorative ironworkers.

II. Special course for art embroidery.

(The preceding are all both summer and winter subjects.)

III. Drawing and modeling, in summer only.