upon was to require two public examinations of teachers to be held in each town annually, the examinations to be held on the same day throughout the county, and the certificates, which were granted by the town superintendents, to hold good until the first day of the following April. All persons applying to be examined at other times were required to present themselves before at least one of the prudential committee of the school in which such person proposed to teach and before one other intelligent adult person. For a certificate granted upon such an examination the candidate was required to pay to the superintendent $1, and the prudential committee were to pay him $2. Some other conditions were also added. The law required the town superintendents in the several counties to meet annually on the third Tuesday of March for the purpose of agreeing upon questions to be used in the written examinations of teachers throughout the county and of fixing a standard of qualifications of teachers for the ensuing year.

At these gatherings, in addition to agreeing upon those questions that were to be asked of the candidates at the regular public examinations, they established certain regulations and acquainted themselves with the condition of the schools. From the first these meetings, which began in 1871, were very popular with town superintendents, progressive teachers, and active friends of common schools, and by means of them a deep interest was everywhere awakened on the subject of the qualifications of teachers.

At the institutes held each year in the fourteen counties of the State certificates valid for five years were awarded by the secretary, according to the provisions of the act of 1866, to which we have referred. The examination was confined wholly to the subjects of study pursued in the common schools of Vermont. In 1870 an amendment was made to the former act, according to which, in addition to a knowledge of common-school studies, the candidates for State certificates must have had a practical and successful experience in teaching of not less than forty weeks during the four years immediately preceding the time of their examination.

In this year the State appropriated $1,000 to each of the three normal schools for the purpose of aiding such young men and women as would agree to hold themselves in readiness to teach in the schools of the State for at least two years immediately following their graduation. Two years later the legislature appropriated the further sum of $500 to each of the normal schools.

As early as 1866 or earlier the secretary of the board of education had advocated abolishing the school districts and the formation of all the districts in each town into a single district controlled by the town. At different times the board of education had strongly recommended this change, believing that on account of the multiplicity of schools a large part of the expenditures for schools was wasted. Moreover, they

believed that 40 per cent was wasted through the failure of the children to attend school. They held that with the establishment of a town system of schools much of the annual expenditures could be saved and at the same time the educational interests could be carried on in a way to secure much better results. At length, in 1870, the general assembly consented to pass the following bill:

Any town in this State may at its annual March meeting in 1871, or at any annual March meeting thereafter, by vote, by a majority of the voters present at any such meeting, abolish the school-district system in such town, and the selectmen of each town shall insert an article for that purpose in the warning for the annual March meeting in 1871, and in the warning for any subsequent annual meeting upon the application of 3 legal voters in such town.

Up to the year 1884 19 towns had changed from the district to the town system. In so doing they placed the schools under better and more permanent teachers and secured more efficient management and supervision. The sentiment in favor of the town system was rapidly increasing.

The period of school age, which had been from 4 to 18 years, was now changed to that between 5 and 20 years. Thereafter two-thirds of the money that was appropriated to the support of the common schools of each town was to be divided between the common-school districts, including also any union districts, "in proportion to the aggregate attendance of the scholars of such district between the ages of 5 and 20 years upon the common schools in such district during the preceding school year."

By an act approved November 23, 1870, attendance at school was made compulsory upon all children between the ages of 8 and 14

years.

Previous to 1866 no school district could receive any share of the public moneys unless during the preceding year it had maintained a school for two months from money raised in the town. In the year named the statute was amended so as to make the legal school year four months; and by a further amendment in 1870 the length of the legal school year was fixed at twenty weeks. Up to 1872 five and a half days constituted a legal school week, but in that year the law was amended so as to read five days, and it so remains.

In case any pupil in a public school is not provided by the parent, master, or guardian with the requisite text-books, it is made the duty of the prudential committee of the district, or of the school board in any town which has abolished school districts, to notify such parents or legal guardians, and if within a week thereafter such books are not provided, the prudential committee or school board shall be authorized to supply them.

"Vermont has no school fund; all the money to defray the expenses of her common schools is raised annually by direct tax on town and district." A system of free public education is based on the proposi

tion that "the property of the State should educate the children of the State." Another proposition equally true is that "equal taxation should secure equal advantages to all for whose benefit the tax is imposed."

The total current expenses of all the public schools for the year ending March 31, 1874, were $516,198.89, and the total expenditures for all school purposes amounted to $622,227.28. This money was raised as follows: By the 9 cent town tax, $123,685.55; by towns, $66,685.92; by tax on districts, $409,421.45.

It will thus be seen that more than two-thirds of the total amount was raised by tax on the districts. In the five years between 1869 and 1874 the expenditures for school purposes had increased nearly 25 per cent. In the poorer districts the rate of taxation for the support of schools had become so great as to be somewhat burdensome, and there was reason for fear lest a still larger number of districts should fail to support any school. Believing, therefore, that there must be some modification of the law the secretary advocated the levying of a State property tax of nearly one-half the amount to be raised, one-half as much more by town tax, a poll tax of $2 each on the 70,000 polls of the State, and the small balance remaining by a tax on the districts. Ten years later the sources of revenue for school purposes are stated to be as follows: First, the interest upon the United States deposit money loaned to the State by the National Government; second, the rent of lands set apart for the support of the common schools; third, the income from funds donated to towns by individuals or otherwise, and, fourth, the town and district taxes.

In 1874 the law relating to school supervision was again modified and an act passed authorizing a return to the former system of choosing a State superintendent of schools, and Edward Conant, who had been at the head of the State Normal School at Randolph since its establishment in 1867, was chosen superintendent. The officers of the school system, as now constituted, consist of a State superintendent of public instruction, town superintendents of schools, and district prudential committees, with the usual associated officers. Their duties are defined as follows:

DUTIES OF STATE SUPERINTENDENT.

The joint assembly of the legislature elect biennially a State superintendent of public instruction. Among the duties assigned him the following are the essential ones: To promote the highest educational interests of the State. To do this he must visit every county and town during the year; deliver lectures upon the subject of education; confer with town superintendents, visit schools with them, and prescribe and furnish them with blank forms for a school register and for collecting school statistics. He must hold a teachers' institute annually

in every county where 25 teachers make application therefor, and he must hold a county convention of town superintendents annually in each county. He must give such information as will enable the selectmen of each town to divide the public money according to law; prepare and annually furnish to each town superintendent blank certificates for teachers. He must have supervision of the normal schools of the State and visit them twice in each term. Together with three examiners appointed by the governor, he examines candidates for normal graduation and determines their fitness for receiving certificates. He also at the teachers' institutes examines candidates for the State teachers' certificates. It is also within the province of the State superintendent to request trustees of incorporated academies and grammar schools to cause their principals to return correct answers to the statistical inquiries that he may address to them. It is his duty to prepare and present to the legislature, on the first day of each biennial session, a report of his official acts for the preceding two years, together with a statement of the condition of the schools, the distribution of the school funds, etc., and have this report printed and distributed according to law.

The governor has power to appoint a superintendent when a vacancy occurs during the term for which he was chosen. The duties of the secretary of the board of education were similar to those of the State superintendent.1

THE TOWN SUPERINTENDENT.2

The town superintendent, elected to hold office for one year, is chosen by the qualified voters of the town at the annual March meeting, and enters upon his duties on the 1st day of April following. It is his duty to visit all legally organized common schools in town-the average number being about 10-at least once each year and give advice to the teachers respecting the government of the pupils and the courses of study; he must inspect the school buildings, and adopt all requisite measures for the inspection of the schools and the improvement of the scholars; receive and distribute school census blanks and

The following is a list of the State superintendents and secretaries of the board of education, with their terms of service:

State superintendent.-Horace Eaton, 1845-50; Charles G. Burnham, 1850–51. Secretary of State board of education.-John S. Adams, 1856-67; Andrew E. Rankin, 1867-70; John H. French, 1870–74.

State superintendent.-Edward Conant, 1874-80; Justus Dartt, 1880-88; Edwin F. Palmer, 1888 (still in office).

2 Mr. J. L. Pickard says in his work on School Supervision, published in 1890, that "all the New England States except Vermont retain the town as the unit with town supervision. All others have adopted the county or parish system except Delaware, which retains the town system." Massachusetts, however, allows two or more towns to combine and choose a superintendent, and Vermont returned to the town system in 1890, having discontinued it July 1, 1889.

school registers furnished by the State superintendent, and see that they are properly kept, and make to him an annual report; he must make a detailed report of the condition of the schools to be presented to the annual March meeting. He is required by law to meet annually, or oftener if it seemed necessary, the other superintendents of the county, at the call of the State superintendent, to consider the interests of education in the county. The town superintendent is entitled to a reasonable compensation" for his services. In 1856 it was not to exceed $1 per day for time actually spent in the work of his office. By the law of 1856 the secretary of the board of education was required to visit the schools in addition to the town superintendent. This constituted "the supervising system of the public schools of the State, partly of a State character and partly of a town character."

PRUDENTIAL COMMITTEE.

This committee may consist of one or three legal voters in a school district, and is chosen at the annual school meeting held on the first Tuesday in March. It is the duty of the committee to hire and pay teachers, and remove them when necessary; provide a suitable place for each school and keep the schoolhouses in good repair; see that fuel, furniture, and all appliances necessary for the welfare of the school are provided; adopt all requisite measures for the inspection, examination, and regulation of the school; and exercise over the school and the teachers the only actual and active power that is exercised at all, or can be. The committee is responsible alone to the district which appoints it. It is their duty to compel all children between the age of and 14 years to attend school for at least three months in each year, and to prevent their employment in any mill or factory until they shall have first spent the required three months in school. In case a conflict of opinion arises between the prudential committee and the town superintendent, the measures adopted by the latter are to govern. However, the work to be done by the prudential committee

"Ihe supervisoni exercised by the town on one side risen bles that of the State The town contristhet n ti and regates the bent tar es of school districts or at peamine a**, »le» di It is within the power of the town to as, »Î the districts in the wipts rt of schon beyond the restorenant of the State The town may wij eer! The work of the district m «hool» by matjurting a central, Krale or ligt stood

Games Papad schwaders woľ estabushi nchings in school districts and res, i re the dis tracts to pay for the sate

ther sole the stipryson exercised by the town differs from that of the In test cases the a; proval of the teacher by the town superintendent biecymmary tl at a conill, to whod may be opened, and the continued approval of the teacer buthe town wiperster destinais (24) at cases tevesary to the contin, latice ༄༅』 R!༄ The tow pw * r *el, der forect, res, lo