there has taken place a gradual improvement in the schools of the State."

Good behavior was among the things which the State required to be taught in the common schools, and in conforming to this law it is said that the superior merits of female teachers were eminently conspicuous. In 1870 Gen. John W. Phelps, of Brattleboro, suggested the preparation of a manual, to be used in the schools, "which should inculcate the few simple rules of courtesy.'

In 1865 it was still customary for teachers to "board around," thus laying the most burdensome tax upon those parents who had children in school.

The various town, county, and State teachers' associations which sprang into existence mainly within the decade between 1855 and 1865 proved themselves of great benefit to the teachers of the State. These associations gathered together those who were actually engaged in the vocation of teaching and were entirely voluntary and selfsustaining in their character. The State Teachers' Association had rapidly increased in numbers and influence, though it could not be said as yet to have enlisted the cooperation of influential men outside the schools-that is, of those who were eminent in social and political life.

In 1866 for the first time no funds were raised "on the scholar," the whole amount necessary to meet the expenditures for the school year being provided by the distribution of the public moneys or raised on the grand list.

The common-school curriculum had remained practically unchanged for more than half a century, the only important text-book introduced during this time being a composite work which combined in one, geography, history, and the constitution of Vermont; but the legislature of 1866 called upon the board of education to arrange two courses of study; one of these to include all the branches required to be taught in the common schools of the State, the other to include in addition such higher English branches as the board should deem best adapted to the use of more advanced classes. They further enacted that at each teachers' institute there should be held an examination in one or both of these courses, and that those who presented themselves and passed the examination should receive certificates entitling them to teach in any part of the State "for the term of five or of fifteen years, according as they passed a satisfactory examination in one course or in both." In conformity with this requirement of the legislature the board of education determined that the candidates should be examined in eight distinct subjects, the first seven of which must be partly written. These subjects included, besides the common branches, the history of the United States, the history of Vermont, with map drawing, the Constitution of the United States and of Vermont, single entry bookkeeping, and the elements of elocution and of vocal culture.

Candidates for the second course, having passed a satisfactory examination in the subjects just named, were to be examined further in bookkeeping by double entry, algebra, physical geography, physiology, elements of botany, natural philosophy, a thorough analysis and explanation of one book of Cowper or Thompson, a critical exposition of Milton's Paradise Lost or Bacon's Essays, and two other subjects to be chosen from the following: Geometry, astronomy, chemistry, geology, surveying, zoology, evidences of Christianity, rhetoric, intellectual philosophy, and moral philosophy.

The character of the institutes was very much changed by the act of 1866. The new law required that two or more practical teachers should be associated with the secretary in conducting the examinations at teachers' institutes. The selection of these teachers was to be made by the board of education.

The effect of the introduction of these examinations was felt at once, since it made the State certificate a prize well worth striving for, and opened the eyes of teachers to their lack of qualifications for the responsible positions which they sought to occupy.

In the same year (1866) another act of great importance to the State was passed by the legislature, authorizing the establishment under certain conditions of normal schools. In accordance with this act normal schools were soon established in each of the three Congressional districts into which the State was then divided. The towns in which these were located were Randolph, Johnson, and Castleton, and in the two former the schools were already opened by February, 1867, only three months after the passage of the act authorizing their establishment. The one at Castleton was opened on September 23, 1868. Examinations were to take place twice a year, and certificates of the same grade as at the teachers' institutes, and requiring the same qualifications, were given to those who were entitled to them. These certificates could be revoked for sufficient cause by the board of education. A year later an appropriation of $1,500 was made by the legislature for the benefit of pupils needing assistance in the normal schools, $500 to be paid by the State treasurer to the board of trustees of each of the normal schools. To these acts of legislation of 1866 was added the provision that after five years from the time of their passage no person could teach in any of the common schools of the State unless possessed of such a certificate of examination as the law required. In practice, however, it was afterwards found difficult to comply with this provision. Still the legislation referred to had a permanent and excellent effect upon the qualifiations of the teachers, and therefore upon the progress of education in the State. Among other legislative acts of this year was one authorizing a revised list of school books. This list was prepared and published the following

year. The first attempt to regulate the selection of text-books was made in 1828, when the board of commissioners for common schools, though they said that their duty was only advisory, proposed a list of books as suitable and proper to be used in the schools. They authorized town committees to select from this list such books as they thought best adapted to their needs. This law was enacted in 1827 and repealed in 1833, though it seems never to have secured any effective recommendations of books. The first notice of text-books being chosen by the board of education was in 1858. Between that date and the year 1880 there had been at different periods four recommendations of text-books.

Secretary J. S. Adams, after eleven years of faithful and efficient service, could look with much gratification upon the very material advance that had been made in all departments of school work throughout the State. In 1867 there was scarcely a large village in Vermont that was not provided with higher schools of some description, and the sentiment in favor of graded schools was constantly increasing. The honor of the changed condition of the schools and of the healthier tone of public opinion respecting them belongs, doubtless, in great part to Mr. Adams, but much credit is also due to the first board of education, which was composed of men whose names should ever be gratefully remembered in the State. They were Calvin Pease, Dorr Bradley, and Hon. T. P. Redfield.

President Buckham, of the University of Vermont, pays this fitting tribute to the character and services of Hon. John S. Adams:

*

He was a remarkable man. * * He was a ready and apt speaker; could gather and interest larger audiences than any man of his time in Vermont, and was capable on occasion of a real eloquence which few public men can approach. He knew the people of Vermont thoroughly—knew how to manage them for their own good. He could argue, flatter, scold, ridicule, according as the needs were, and rarely failed to make his hearers see as he saw, feel as he felt. On the organization of the board of education in 1856 Mr. Adams was appointed secretary. He threw himself into the pioneer work, which was then most needed and for which he was admirably fitted, with all the ardor of an enthusiast. In this work he labored eleven years with the greatest energy and the most useful results to the school system of VerThe State owes to few of the public men who have devoted themselves to her highest interests a greater debt of gratitude than to Mr. Adams.

mont.

By act of November 18, 1866, the board of education was to be chosen as follows:

The governor shall annually [after 1870 biennially] nominate and by and with the advice and consent of the senate shall appoint a board of education, consisting of six persons, two of whom shall be residents of each Congressional district, and three of the number at least shall be practical educators. And the governor of the State for the time being shall be ex officio a member of said board.

1This State commission issued what is accounted the first Vermont school report. 2 The State has since received the benefit of better classified text-books and better instructed schools.

Previous to this act the board had consisted of but five persons.
Among other school legislation of that year was the following:

* * *

The several towns shall, at each annual meeting, elect one or more trustees, not exceeding three, whose duty it shall be to receive, take care of, and manage the money deposited with the respective towns.

This has reference to the United States deposit money. According to existing law the State treasurer had authority "to receive any moneys belonging to the United States, hereafter to be deposited with this State, and give a certificate of deposit." The interest on this deposit money received from the Government, which by the act of 1836 is appropriated to the support of common schools, "is not to be taken as a part of the proceeds of the school fund within the purview of the proviso to the ninth section of the act of 1827, entitled ‘An act to provide for the support of common schools,' and to go so far as a relief against the 3-cent tax required by law."

In 1867 Hon. A. E. Rankin was chosen secretary of the board of education to succeed Mr. Adams. In his first report (1868) he says:

It is to the clergy, more than to any other profession--and more than to all others that the cause of education is indebted. They have more sympathy with and a higher appreciation of the importance of thorough and efficient educational work.

This is probably not too strong a stating of the case, for it is, without doubt, true that as in the early history of New England, so in its later history, the clergy have been the warmest, most faithful, and most intelligent fosterers and friends of education. The new secretary said: "Every dollar judiciously expended in the cause of education will give a larger return in kind than any other investment which it is possible to make," and he made a strong plea for moral and religious instruction in the school, maintaining that the Constitution of the United States and the framers of the State constitutions did not design to exclude moral and religious instruction from the public school. He says that according to Chief Justice Shaw "the public-school system was intended to provide a system of moral training." "Christianity is a part of the law of England," says Blackstone, and, in a note to an American edition of his commentaries, he declares that "we have received the Christian religion as a part of the common law."

In the legislation of 1867 there was a requirement that parents and guardians should give "their children and wards between the ages of 8 and 14 years three months' schooling annually at the public school, or an equivalent, and prohibiting manufacturing companies from employing those who have not enjoyed such schooling," a penalty of from $10 to $20 being affixed for the violation of this law.

The general assembly also authorized each town to establish and maintain one or more central schools for the education of advanced

pupils of the several districts. To support these schools each pupil was to pay to the town treasurer such sum per term for tuition as the prudential committee, chosen by the town to have the oversight of these central schools, should determine.

After serving as secretary of the board of education for three years Mr. Rankin resigned the office. His important services while holding this high office, his fine culture, and sound and thorough views of education, and his earnest discussion of the important principles of school reform placed him in high esteem among the friends of education in Vermont. The hopeful features of the school system during the period of his incumbency was a greater regularity in the attendance of pupils and a very decided elevation in the standard of requirements in the examinations by superintendents of candidates for teachers' certificates.

The establishment of three normal schools had from the first met with much opposition. It was believed by some that the system established "was wholly unworthy of any State that aims to make liberal provision for public education." The true thought, they said, was concentration. Instead of three normal schools with divided strength, there should be one strong central school, provided with means for its work. It was certainly the duty of the State to train teachers for its schools, and it was more economical to train them herself than, by affording inferior facilities, to compel them to seek this training elsewhere.

The board of education was in favor of concentration, and recommended the establishing of one normal school and the appropriation of $5,000 thereto in addition to what the State already paid for normal instruction and for the institutes; but the legislature was unable to agree upon any provision more satisfactory than that which already existed, and therefore the three normal schools were left undisturbed to carry on, as best they could with limited means, the training of teachers for the State.

On May 14, 1870, Hon. John H. French, LL. D., of Albany, N. Y., was chosen secretary of the board of education to succeed Mr. Rankin. Mr. French was then a resident of Albany, N. Y. He made an efficient secretary, and there was a substantial improvement in the common schools during his administration of the office.

Reference has already been made to the act passed in 1866, which required that after the expiration of five years all the teachers of the State must hold the institute certificate of examination or its equivalent-the diploma of the normal schools. At the expiration of the time stated, however, it was found that not much more than 400, and perhaps less than that number, of certificates were held by those who were teaching the children of the State. It therefore became necessary to agree upon some modification of the law, and the plan agreed