valid arguments opposed to such a procedure, but they are not sufficiently strong to eliminate the proposal from consideration. 4. Vaizey identifies the major problem in technical education as that of providing technical teachers: "They have to be recruited from among those who are already technically qualified and mature, and are, therefore, likely to expect higher rates of pay than other teachers, even though their academic qualifications are lower." 13 It should be added that the small number of graduates of technical schools going into the labor force will be further diminished by the number who remain in teaching. Actually, the teaching of technical subjects might appeal to graduates more than going into the labor market because of the higher prestige attached to teaching. If Harbison's suggestion for conducting training in major employing institutions were followed, it might result in a more efficient utilization of trained manpower.

Professional training, the other major aspect of specialized training, presents another complex of problems, although it shares with vocational training the problem of teacher supply. As noted earlier, the nature of vocational training changes with technological progress and automation. Technological progress has increased the body of available knowledge in the professions so that there is a marked tendency to specialize, but automation is only beginning to change the nature of professional tasks. The principal problems in providing adequate professional training can be grouped under the headings of standards, requirements, objectives, and cost.

Standards are an important, indispensable characteristic of a profession. In fact, it might be argued that self-enforced professional standards are among the features which distinguish a profession from a vocation. However, it can also be argued that some professional standards which appear proper in their original setting are superfluous in another culture. The fact that professional standards in country A demand that a man have xyz qualifications in order to hold a given position should not mean, necessarily, that xyz qualifications are essential for a man holding a similar position in country B. However, professional standards of the more developed countries are often generally aspired to by less-developed countries without considering too carefully their applicability to local conditions.

Requirements are generally considered as the basis for standards. However, there are standards which seem to represent more of a professional affectation in certain affluent societies; this is particularly true when such standards are viewed in another social context. For this reason, requirements are discussed separately from standards.

13 John Vaizey. "Some of the Main Issues That Must Be Faced in the Strategy of Educational Supply." Unpublished paper presented at the OECD Policy Conference on Economic Growth and Investment in Education held in Washington, D.C., Oct. 16-20, 1961. p. 13.

Because of the high cost of training, professional requirements in an overall educational plan should be based upon minimum needs in the initial stages. There is an implied assumption in some of the manpower studies already made that expatriates now serving in lessdeveloped countries should be replaced by nationals having equivalent professional qualifications. This assumes that the minimum qualifications for the position are the qualifications of the person holding the position. Projections of manpower needs based on such an assumption may result in an overestimation of the need for professional training facilities.

The objectives of professional training would seem to be easily determined. However, status problems arise in fulfilling planned targets in the intermediate professions. It is difficult to attract students to the less lucrative professions and to positions requiring less than full professional preparation, even though greater numbers of trainees are required in these fields. For example, one architect or aeronautical engineer can provide work for many draftsmen, but there are often too many candidates for engineering training and too few applicants for training as draftsmen.

The cost of professional training, particularly in some highly specialized fields, is usually considerably higher than vocational training. The period of training is longer and the physical plant required is more elaborate and often it serves a smaller number of students. The training of the instructional staff is more expensive in terms of time and money; teachers' salaries are likely to be higher; and, as in the case of the physical plant, fewer students benefit from their use. In some cases, it is less expensive for an underdeveloped country to send students abroad for specialized professional training than it would be to provide local facilities for such training. Regional training centers have been proposed as one way of meeting this problem, but nationalistic rivalries have thus far made the regional approach impractical.

In conclusion, the objectives of professional training must be related to requirements, and local professional standards should be based upon the specific objectives and requirements of the local society rather than upon the professional standards of alien and more affluent cultures. The high cost of professional training demands that professional manpower needs be very carefully assessed.

Teacher Training

The training of teachers is one aspect of planned educational development which directly affects and is affected by all developments in education. For this reason, more basic information is required in this field than in planning any other aspect of educational development.

Once the basic information on all aspects of planned educational expansion has been collected, it should be possible to estimate the total teaching requirements.

As countries contemplate the expansion of educational programs, the problem of supplying teachers is of crucial importance. Perhaps a more accurate wording would be "the problem of providing teaching," because such a phrase allows for technological and methodological development which can increase the supply of teaching without increasing the number of teachers. It also allows for developments which would make the present supply of teaching available to a larger number of students.

Implied in any system of education is a system of instruction which may be conducted through various media, such as books, filmstrips, movies, television, radio, and teaching machines. However, most systems at present rely principally upon the individual teacher to instruct, making use of such media as are available. In very general terms, the educational goals of a system have tended to be a subjective compromise between quantity and quality. This compromise often appears to have been based upon an implicit assumption that an increase in one would result in a decrease of the other. The assumed relationship is relative, however, depending to a great extent upon the technology for instruction.

The term "technology for instruction" refers both to the applications of pedagogical science and to technology not specifically related to formal instruction, but which affects the field of education, such as improved methods of transportation and communication, improved construction methods, etc.

Teaching requirements can be translated into the estimated requirement for teachers by selecting the most promising of a series of possible "modes of instruction." The modes of instruction would each represent a specific combination of resources; collectively, the series of modes would make possible a wide variety of qualitative and quantitative end results with varying cost and efficiency factors. One mode may make far more efficient use of human resources through heavy capital investment than another which stresses a substantial investment of human resources and a judicious use of physical capital. Real or potential human resource capital is usually far more plentiful than physical capital (and the means of producing it) in the less-developed countries. Therefore, the most appropriate mode of instruction is likely to rely upon manpower a great deal more than physical capital— particularly the types of physical capital which can only be obtained through substantial expenditures of foreign exchange.

Another factor which will influence the choice of a mode is the rate of planned expansion of the educational system. Although any of a number of modes might achieve comparable qualitative and quantita

tive results over a 20-year period, some may produce a greater rate of growth in the early stages than others. In such cases, the mode which produces the most rapid rate of growth in its initial stages may be selected, with the intention of shifting to another mode once the rate of growth achieved becomes less than that possible using an alternate mode, or when a quantitative goal has been achieved and the need is felt to shift emphasis to qualitative goals. An example of a mode which can make possible a rapid initial rate of growth is an emergency teacher training program by correspondence, which makes it possible to increase the supply of teachers, though not without sacrificing quality. Such an emergency mode of instruction might be followed by a program for the gradual upgrading of the teachers trained through the correspondence program. This would be a transitional mode of instruction which should tend to increase the quality of instruction by improving the qualifications of the teachers.

Teacher training needs can best be assessed only after a mode of instruction has been adopted. Attempts to plan a system of teacher training without reference to the mode of instruction can result in considerable wastage. Because the mode of instruction determines the amount and type of physical capital to be employed in the teaching process (basic school architecture, classroom equipment, textbooks, teaching aids, etc.), it also affects the training of the teacher, since he will be most effective when specifically trained to make the best use of the facilities designated by the mode. The mode also determines the number of teachers that should be trained because of the physical/human capital ratios implied. Other factors will influence the estimates of the number of teachers because the mode is formulated in constant terms which seldom exist in any given country. For example, the mode may call for a student-teacher ratio of 60, but there may be areas of the country where it is not possible to collect 60 students for a single class. This, and similar factors, must be allowed for in estimating the number of teachers required.

No amount of emphasis on modes of instruction can serve to diminish the crucial importance of teacher training programs for maintaining a system of education as well as for contributing to its expansion and renovation. Because it must be able to provide for the training of human resources to implement a previously determined, overall instructional requirement of the educational plan, the planning of teacher training should be a later-stage, rather than an early-stage operation.

Education of Women

Related to the problem of providing more teaching for the expansion of an educational system is the subject of the education of women.

Aside from the moral and social issues of equality of opportunity for women (which have not yet gained universal acceptance), there are indications that many countries could profit substantially through the education of a greater number of women. The influence of the woman as a teacher, both within and outside the formal educational system, is significant throughout the world, although it appears to be stronger in some cultures than in others. The education of more women should qualitatively influence the teaching role of the woman outside the educational system and should also create a larger supply of potential teachers for the system.

The education of women, particularly in countries where there is little opportunity for them to pursue a profession, would appear to be primarily a form of consumption, rather than investment, and may be minimized for that reason. However, the extent to which women are instrumental in the formation and maintaining of social attitudes should enhance their value as potential agents of change. If the education of women can influence their nonformal educational role in the direction of promoting necessary changes in social attitudes, it becomes a form of investment. For example, changes in attitudes might be brought about through the education of women by eroding the concept that education gives the individual a status which places. him above manual labor. The presence in the home of an educated woman who performs manual tasks connected with the household is a living example to the youngster of how education can be used to improve one's skills for performing tasks, not for avoiding them. The influence that the mother exerts over the child during the years before he reaches school can be equally, perhaps even more, significant than the influence of the teacher on the student after he is in school. Educated women are also a source of teacher supply. In most countries of the world, there are relatively fewer career opportunities open to women than to men. Furthermore, as Vaizey points out, the wages and salaries of women are usually lower than for men doing similar work. These two factors combine to increase the economic desirability of training women as teachers because their opportunities for alternative employment are fewer and their pay scales are not likely to be as high.1

It should also be noted that there exists in many countries a latent supply of teachers consisting of married women who were formerly schoolteachers and who might be brought back into the profession. Although many such persons might require some refresher training, the cost of such training, plus that of maintaining them in the profession, should be substantially less than for new teachers.

Although the educated woman may be a valuable agent for inducing change in an underdeveloped country, it should be recognized that,

14 Ibid., p. 15.