Introduction... CONTENTS Testing the Basic Assumptions-A Conceptual Problem---- Human Technology. Developing Human Technology The Role of Education Educational Problems.... Specific Problem Areas. Literacy... Language Problems.. Compulsory Education__. Specialized Training Vocational Training Professional Training Teacher Training.... Education of Women. The Role of Private Education_ Part-Time and Correspondence Education. Curriculum Development---- Team Teaching and Community Development.. Summary IN INTRODUCTION ́N RECENT YEARS there has been a marked increase in the output of literature linking economics with education. In the past, most of the professional literature in this area dealt either with educational finance (the economics of education) or, in a general way, with the role of education in economic development. Current literature continues to deal with these two fields, but in such a way as to introduce a new field, or at least to direct attention to new uses for materials developed in the two fields. If indeed there is a new field, it might be termed "educational policy and practice as an instrument for promoting economic development" or "the use of planned educational growth to promote economic development." The approach, generally stated, ascribes a causative role to education in the development process. As stated in the Summary Report of a recent Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) conference: Deeper understanding of the forces affecting long-term economic and social progress is leading to recognition of the fact that investment in education is an indispensable prerequisite of future economic growth.1 Official United States recognition of this relationship is implied in section 211(b) of the Act for International Development of 1961. In countries and areas which are in the earlier stages of economic development, programs of development of education and human resources through such means as technical cooperation shall be emphasized, and the furnishing of capital facilities for purposes other than the development of educational and human resources shall be given a lower priority until the requisite knowledge and skills have been developed." Successful implementation of this section of the act will depend upon a number of factors, not the least of which is the validity of the basic assumptions on which it rests: 1. That "experts" can now make recommendations in the field of educational policy and practice which will produce reasonably predictable increases in the productivity of the economy in an underdeveloped country; 1 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. nomic Growth and Investment in Education: Summary Report. October 1961. p. 1. Policy Conference on Eco- Act for International Development of 1961. Public Law 87-195, S. 1983, Sept. 4, 1961. p. 4. 2. That "the earlier stages of economic development" are readily distinguishable from stages where "the requisite knowledge and skills have been developed"; 3. That one can identify, define, and impart the "requisite knowledge and skills" for any given underdeveloped society; 4. That the basic deficiencies which cause underdevelopment have been identified and are understood; and 5. That the United States has, or can quickly develop, the "technology" to overcome these deficiencies. Development is change; planned development is planned change. The planning function in a society, be it in political, economic, or social fields, is based upon the ability to predict and/or anticipate, which, in turn, is based upon an understanding of existing social, political, and economic forces and the ways in which they will act, react, and interact to a proposed set of parameter values and/or variables. A planner must have a keen sense of awareness of the current status of the objectives of the society, and how it is possible to arrive at the intended destination. However, objectives are relative; once achieved, they make possible new objectives by increasing the society's capacity to develop. Thus, objectives in the planning process are both ends and means to further ends, which, in turn, become further means, ad infinitum. The planner's own ability, his understanding of the environment in which the plan must operate, the technology available to him, and the quantity and quality of information to which he has access are prime factors in the formulation of a feasible plan. TESTING THE BASIC ASSUMPTIONS— The term "underdeveloped country" which has been used with ever-increasing frequency in the postwar period is an ambiguous one. As most commonly used, it refers to a country that is making substantially less than optimum use of its available resources at a given level of the arts and sciences. This implies the existence of an internationally recognized and internationally valid level of the arts and sciences which can be used as a yardstick. The weakness of this basic assumption lies in the fact that the term "arts and sciences" includes the social sciences. Technology, for the purpose of this discussion, refers to applied science; i.e., the application of scientific knowledge to one's environment for the purpose of altering its form, substance, or the way in which it is used. The term "social science technology" refers to knowledge in the social sciences applied to one's social environment for the purpose of altering its form, substance, or the way in which it is used. Unfortunately, the pool of international technology in the social sciences is considerably smaller than in the physical sciences and is replete with cliches, slogans, value judgments, and the like which cannot withstand the test of objective research. Stated in general terms, technology is a product of man's individual and collective response to his environment. Through time, particularly since the advent of the industrial revolution, technological advance has resulted in what might be referred to as a "cultural" or "social" lag or gap. The application of physical science alters the environment to which society must respond and the response produces new technology. Thus, while changes in the physical environment are wrought by physical science in a revolutionary way, society is expected to respond to such revolutionary change in an evolutionary manner. Man has thus far been exceedingly reluctant to employ social science technologically; i.e., to apply knowledge in the social sciences to his social environment for the purpose of altering its form, substance, or the way in which it is used. The principal technological uses of the social sciences have been in fields such as criminology where the objective is primarily that of maintaining a degree of uniformity in man's response to his social and physical environment. Viewed in this light, the technological applications of the social sciences have tended to be for the purpose of maintaining the status quo, whereas the technological applications of the physical sciences have been for the purpose of promoting revolutionary changes in man's physical environment. Physical science is amoral and essentially free of ideological conWith few exceptions, the social sciences are moral and are seldom separated from ideology. They examine mores and folkways, patterns of behavior, and value systems, but they tend to emphasize the differences or the distinguishing features of social systems and attitudes. Physical science and its technological applications enable man to describe and to study his physical environment and to put it to new uses. The social sciences have made it possible to analyze and describe certain aspects of man's individual and group behavior. There are, however, strong moral values, particularly in Western liberal democratic systems, which oppose the application of scientific knowledge gained through social studies for the purpose of imposing social change. This has resulted in a "clinical approach" which describes a social problem symptomatically and proposes possible cures for the symptoms within a context of social morality. Although many studies may seek out the origins of the problems under investigation, the social scientist who violates the social morality of his |