into vapors or gases; a portion of caloric, which is essential to the elasticity of the new product, ceases to become apparent. Whenever this effect takes place, cold is said to be produced; by which we are only to understand the passage of caloric from a free to a latent form. The reverse of these phenomena has also been satisfactorily established; viz. when the density of bodies is increased, either by chemical or mechanical means, caloric is evolved. For example, a high temperature is produced by mingling cold sulphuric acid and water; metals become intensely heated by the augmentation of their density through hammering;, liquids, by becoming solids, or gases by conversion into liquids, also evolve caloric. A pound of water, condensed from steam, will render 100 pounds of water at 50° warmer by 11°; whereas, a pound of boiling water will produce the same rise of temperature in no more than about 13.12 pounds; and, since steam and boiling water affect the thermometer in the same manner, this effect can be produced only from the existence of a much greater quantity of caloric in the former than in the latter. -The sources of caloric are six; viz. the sun's rays, combustion, percussion, friction, the mixture of different substances, and electricity.

CALORIMETER; an instrument to measure the capacity of a body for caloric, or its specific caloric. The thermometer (q. v.) measures merely the variations of temperature, or sensible heat. The body in the calorimeter is placed in the innermost of three concentric vessels, the two outer ones containing ice; the quantity of water produced by the cooling of the body a given number of degrees, determines its specific caloric. This instrument was invented by Lavoisier and Laplace. In the C. invented by Rumford, water is used; the capacity of the body is determined by the number of degrees which the temperature of the water is raised, in cooling the body a given number of degrees.

CALORIMOTOR. (See Galvanic Battery.) CALOTTISTS, or the RÉGIMENT de la CALOTTE; a society which sprung up at Paris, in the last years of the reign of Louis XIV, and formed a regiment under the name La Calotte, signifying a flat cap of a peculiar shape, which was the symbol of the society. All were admitted whose ridiculous behavior, odd character, foolish opinions, &c., had exposed them to public criticism. They had a singular coat of arms, on which was the sceptre of Momus, with bells, apes, rattles, &c.: on their

principal standard were the words "Pavet Momus, luna influit." Every one who made himself particularly ridiculous received letters-patent, and those who were most angry were most laughed at. On the death of Torsac, the colonel of the Calottists, the éloge (a spirited satire on the academical style), which the Calottists pronounced on this occasion, was suppressed. Aimon, colonel of the guards, hastened to marshal Villars with their complaints, and concluded with the words, "My lord, since the death of Alexander and Cæsar, the Calottists have not had any protector besides you," and the order was retracted. They became, however, too bold, attacked the ministers, and even foreign kings; and the regiment was, in consequence, dissolved. Of a similar character is the Academy of Fools, which, for many years, has existed in Duisburg. Some act of folly is necessary to procure a man admission as a member.

CALOYERS; Greek monks, who chiefly reside on mount Athos, and lead a very solitary and austere life, eating no meat, and observing the fasts of the Greek church very rigidly. They do not even eat bread, unless they have earned it. During their 7 weeks of Lent, they pass the greatest part of the night in weeping and lamentations for their own sins and for those of others. The Turks sometimes call their dervishes by this name.

CALPE. (See Abyla and Gibraltar.) CALPRENEDE, Gauthier de Costes de la, born in Tolgou, in Gascony, died at Paris in 1663, in the office of royal chamberlain. He was one of the authors who, in the 17th century, brought into fashion a new kind of voluminous and long-spun romances of chivalry. Events from the Greek and Roman history were treated in the spirit and manner of the old romances of chivalry. C. wrote Cassandra, in 10 vols., Cleopatra, in 12 vols., Pharamond, in 7, besides some tragedies. His trage dies obtained little reputation by the side of those of Corneille, but his romances were highly celebrated, and are, certainly, the best of their kind. He is not destitute of poetical imagination, and his characters are often dignified and well drawn, though his Artaban has become a proverbial name for exaggeration. He wrote with great rapidity. His plots, however, are constructed with care, and his stories, long as they are, are not deficient in keeping. His lady has surpassed him in boldness of romantic narration in Les Nouvelles de la Princesse Alcidiane.

CALPURNIUS, Titus Julius, a native of

This post he resigned in 1624, in consequence of having become a Roman Catholic. Notwithstanding this, he retained the confidence of the king, who, in 1625, raised him to the Irish peerage of Baltimore. He had previously obtained a grant of land in the island of Newfoundland, where he was prevented from making a settlement by the invasions of the French. He therefore resigned his claim, receiving, instead of it, a territory on the American continent, now forming the state of Maryland. This country was colonized under the patronage of lord Baltimore, who displayed justice and good faith in his dealings with the Indians, and liberality to religious sects in his legislative arrangements, highly creditable to his principles and character. He died in London, in 1632. He wrote some political tracts, and his speeches in parliament and letters have also been published.

CALVIN, John (so called from Calvinus, the Latinized form of his family name Chauvin), the second great reformer of the 16th century, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, July 10, 1509. His father, Gerard Chauvin, a cooper, dedicated him early to the church. C. says, in a letter to Claude d'Hangest, abbot of St. Eloi, at Noyon, that he was indebted to the family of this prelate for his first instruction and a liberal education. When hardly 12 years old, he received a benefice in the cathedral of his native city. Six years after, he was appointed to a cure, which he soon exchanged for another. Thus, by the means of his benefactors, he enjoyed, even before his 20th year, several benefices, and even the title and income of a cure, while he was yet pursuing his studies in Paris. Here he became acquainted with his townsman Peter Robert Ólivetan, his senior by some years, from whom he received the first germ of the new doctrine, which was then beginning to spread in France. He was induced, by this, to renounce the study of theology, and to devote himself to law, at Orleans, and afterward at Bourges. He made rapid progress therein, and, at the same time, studied the Greek language, under Melchior Volmar, a German, who strengthened the inclination for innovations already awakened in him by Olivetan. In 1532, he returned to Paris, and resigned his benefices. In the same year, he published a Latin commentary upon the two books of Seneca, De Clementia, in which he called himself by his Latinized name, Johannes Calvinus, and was obliged, in 1533, to flee from Paris, be

cause his friend Michael Cop, rector of the university, was persecuted on account of a discourse in favor of the new doctrine, in which he was suspected of having participated. C. took refuge in the house of Du Tillet, a canon at Angoulème, with whom he quietly pursued his studies, and began to collect the materials for his Christian Institution, which appeared two years afterwards. Thence he went to Nerac, to queen Margaret of Navarre, the sister of Francis I, who, not so much from a decided inclination for the new doctrine, as from love for science, afforded refuge to several learned men, who were obliged to leave France on account of their opinions. C. was very well received by her, and here became acquainted with several men, who, at a future time, were useful to his party; re turned to Paris, but, in 1534, was again obliged to leave France. He retired to Bale, where he published his Christian Institution, as the confession of faith of those who were persecuted in France, and condemned to the stake; in which it was his design to free them from the calumny, which had been circulated from political motives, that they were rebels and Anabaptists, and had nothing in common with the Lutheran doctrine. It would be difficult briefly to relate how he went farther than Luther in regard to the doctrine of free will, of imputative justice, and the merit of good works; but it is more easy to display the bold consequences which he drew from his doctrines. He attacked not only the supremacy of the pope, but even the authority of general councils; he does not recognise the character of a bishop or a priest any more than that of a visible head of the church; he permits no vows but those of baptism, and no sacraments but those of baptism and the Lord's supper; even these he does not regard as indispensable to salvation. The mass is to him a profanation, and the honors paid to the saints, idolatry. This work, Insti tutio Christianæ Religionis, appeared af terwards in French, and almost every year was published by him with emendations and additions. The most complete edition was published by Robert Stephens, in 1559. The prefixed Præfatio ad Christianissimum regem, qua hic e liber pro confessione fidei offertur, could not, however, put an end to the religious persecutions in France; since Francis 1, although far from being actuated by religious fanaticism, was influenced, by political views, to continue them. Č. then

over

who understood it typically. In a conference held at Zürich in 1549, he first declared himself, unconditionally, in favor of the opinion of the latter. At last, in 1541, his friends in Geneva succeeded in effecting his recall; a particular deputation besought the magistracy of Strasburg to restore him to his former flock. But, as C. was appointed a deputy to the diet at Frankfort, and was afterwards obliged to be present at the conference at Ratisbon, he was not able to return to Geneva till September of the same year. He now laid before the council the draft of his ordinances respecting church-discipline, which were immediately accepted, and published in November. In pursuance of the provisions of these, a consistory was formed, composed half of clergymen, half of laymen, in order to watch " the support of the pure doctrine," and over morals. This tribunal called everybody, without exception, to account for their slightest words and actions, and referred cases, where ecclesiastical censure was not sufficient, to the council, with an opinion upon them. Thus C. made himself director of the conduct, as well as of the opinions, of the Genevans. His spirit governed exclusively in the council as in the consistory, and the judges never hesitated to punish every one who set himself in opposition to him. Thus a magis trate was deposed and condemned to two months' imprisonment, "because his life was irregular, and he was connected with the enemies of C." James Gruet was beheaded, "because he had written profane letters and obscene verses, and endeavored to overthrow the ordinances of the church." Opinions were judged with equal severity. It is well known, that Michael Servetus, on his passage through Geneva, in 1553, was arrested, and, on C.'s accusation, was burnt alive, because he had attacked the mystery of the Trinity in a book which was neither written nor printed at Geneva, Numerous other similar examples might be adduced, to prove the blind and fanatical zeal which he had infused into the magistracy of Geneva, for the support of good morals, and of what he esteemed sound doctrine; and, by this means, he succeeded in putting a check upon innovations, and upon the spirit of inquiry, and in introducing a character of austerity among his adherents. also proposed alterations in the civil legislation of the Genevans, and in the form of their government, in which some French refugees were useful to him. For the advancement of useful studies,

went to Italy, to preach his doctrine there, and met with a favorable reception from the duchess Renata of France, the daughter of Louis XII, and wife of Ercole d'Este, who subsequently professed her belief in his doctrines. But he was obliged to save himself by a hasty flight from Aosta, where he was discovered. He returned to Paris about the middle of the year 1536. Since, however, he could not live there in security, he resolved to go to Bâle, and took the road through Geneva, where, a year before, the new doctrine had been introduced by a formal decree of the government, and Farel was very active in effecting its establishment. With him C. united himself, and, soon after, undertook a course of theological instruction, to which he devoted himself exclusively, while he left the pulpit to Farel. They attempted to reform the manners of the inhabitants; but this enterprise, in which they had connected themselves with an equally zealous, but less able preacher, drew upon them a crowd of powerful enemies, by whom they were at last overthrown. The cause of this was the following: the Genevan church made use of leavened bread in the eucharist, and had removed the baptismal font from the church, and, moreover, abolished all holy-days, except the Sabbath. These innovations were not approved by the synod of Lausanne. The magistracy of Geneva required Farel and C. to comply with the decision of the synod, and commanded them, on their refusal, to leave the city in three days. This happened in April, 1538. They went to Berne; and, since the exertions of the magistracy of Berne and of the synod of Zürich could not effect their recall, C. went to Strasburg, where Luther's doctrine had been introduced by Bucer 10 years before. Bucer received him very kindly, and caused him to be appointed professor of theology. At the same time, he obtained permission to erect a French church, which, on account of the great number of fugitives from France, was very important. Notwithstanding the great esteem in which he was held here, his views were still directed to Geneva; the inhabitants of which he exhorted, in two letters, to remain true to the new doctrine, when cardinal Sadolet invited them to return into the bosom of the church. Here, also, in 1540, C. published his work on the Lord's supper, in which he sought to refute both the opinion of Luther, who took this sacrament in the literal sense, and that of Zuinglius (q. v.),

He

he erected the academy so happily conducted by his friend Theodore Beza.When we consider all that C. did during his continuance in Geneva, we can hardly conceive how he could have accomplished so much. He preached almost daily, delivered theological lectures three times a week, attended all deliberations of the consistory, all sittings of the association of ministers, and was the soul of all the councils. He was consulted, too, upon points of law as well as of theology. Besides this, he found time to attend to political affairs in the name of the republic; to publish a multitude of writings in defence of his opinions, of which his commentaries on the Bible are the most important; and to maintain a correspondence through all Europe, but principally in France, where he labored incessantly to extend the new doctrine. Besides his printed sermons, the library of Geneva contains 2025 in manuscript, and, like that of Berne, several theological treatises not printed. Although C. differed from Luther in essential points, yet his adherents were not distinguished from the Lutherans in the edicts of Francis I and Henry II, nor even in the edict of Rouen in 1559. They themselves, indeed, regarded C. as their head, but without considering themselves as different, on this account, from the adherents of Luther. A formal separation first took place after the colloquium (conference) of Poissy, in 1561, where they expressly rejected the 10th article of the confession of Augsburg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. C. died May 27, in the 55th year of his age. He was of a weak constitution, and suffered from frequent sickness. In Strasburg, he had married a widow, Idelette de Burie, in 1539: a son, the fruit of their union, died early. In 1549, he lost his wife, after which he never married again. He was temperate and austere, gloomy and inflexible. He knew nothing of friendship, and had no other passion than to establish the opinions which he believed to be correct. His disinterestedness was rare. He had a yearly stipend of 150 francs, 15 measures of corn, and 2 casks of wine: he never received a larger one. The value of the whole property which he left, in books, furniture, money, &c., did not exceed 125 crowns. His character was impetuous, and impatient of contradiction. "I have," he writes to Bucer, "no harder battles against my sins, which are great and numerous, than those in which I seek to conquer my impatience.

I have not yet gained the mastery over this raging beast." The tone of his controversies is always harsh, bitter and contemptuous. He does not always succeed in concealing the feeling of his own superiority. As a theologian, C. was equal to any of his contemporaries in profound knowledge, acuteness of mind, and, as he himself boasts, in the art of making good a point in question. As an author, be merits great praise. His Latin works are written with much method, dignity and correctness. He was also a great jurist and an able politician. But all these qualities would not have been sufficient to make him the head of a distinct religious sect, had he not boldly rejected all religious ceremonies. By this means, be gained, on the one side, the highly culti vated, who were induced to look upon visible forms in religion as something derogatory, and also gave the uneducated an easy means of distinguishing thenselves from the opposite party, without the necessity of examining the grounds of their faith, for which they were neither inclined nor qualified.-The chief doctrines of C.'s system are those which were discussed at the famous synod of Dort, under the following heads: predestination, particular redemption, total depravity, irresistible grace, and the certain perseverance of the saints. In succeeding controversies, these were denominated the fire points. The doctrine of original sin, ofien set forth as peculiar to C.'s system, is common to those of many Protestant sects. The followers of C., in Germany, are called the Reformed, but the doctrine of predestination, it may be safely said, is every day losing ground in that country. In France, it is well known, most Protestants are Calvinists. Calvinism is the professed belief of the greatest part of the Presbyterians both of Europe and Amer ica; the Particular Baptists, in England and India, and the Associated Baptists in America; the Independents of every class in England and Scotland, and the Congregationalists of New England.

CALVINISM. (See the conclusion of the preceding article; also Protestants.)

CALVISIUS, Seth; a musician and chro nologer of the 16th century. He was the son of a Thuringian peasant, Jacob Kalwiz; was born in 1556, and, after a liberal musical and scientific education, became chanter at the Schulpforta and at the Thomas school at Leipsic. He died in 1617. His valuable works on the theory of music, written in good Latin, are mentioned in Gerber's Biographical