poetry. She is said to have been the mother of Orpheus by Apollo. She was represented with an epic poem in one hand, and a trumpet in the other, and generally crowned with laurel.

CALLISEN, Henry, a physician and surgeon, born in 1740, at Pentz, in Holstein, son of a poor clergyman, educated himself by his own exertions, served in the army and in the fleet, afterwards in the hospitals at Copenhagen, was made, in 1771, chief surgeon in the Danish fleet, and, in 1773, professor of surgery at the university in Copenhagen. He wrote, in 1777, his Institut. Chirurgia hodierna, which was received with applause by all Europe. In Vienna, and at the Russian universities, lectures are given on them. There are also excellent essays by him in the medical journals. He died at Copenhagen, February 5, 1824, at the age of 84

years.

CALLISTHENES, a Greek philosopher and historian, a native of Olynthus, was appointed to attend Alexander in his expedition against Persia. His republican sentiments rendered him unfit for a courtier, added to which he had no small share of vanity. But his unpardonable crime was his opposition to the assumption by that conqueror of divine honors. The conspiracy of Hermolaus affording a pretext for a charge of treason, he was apprehended. Historians disagree as to his fate; but most of them admit that he was for some time carried about with the army in the ignominious character of a convicted traitor. Aristotle states that he died of a disease contracted under this treatment. Ptolemy asserts that he was crucified; Justin, that he was disfigured and confined in a cage, with a dog for his companion, until Lysimachus enabled him to terminate his sufferings by poison. He wrote a History of the Actions of Alexander, and other historical works.

CALLISTHENICS. (See Gymnastics.) CALLISTO; a nymph of Diana, daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. Jupiter loved her, assumed the shape of Diana, and seduced her. The fruit of her amour, called Arcas, was hid in the woods, but preserved. She was changed, by the jealousy of Juno, into a bear. Jupiter placed her, with her son, among the stars, where she still shines as the Great Bear.

CALLOT, Jacques, born in 1594, at Nancy, vanquished, by perseverance, every obstacle which obstructed his perfection in his art. He twice ran away from his parents, who intended him for another

profession, fled to Italy, and learnt drawing, in Rome, under Giul. Parigi, engraving under Philip Thomassin, and became afterwards, at Florence, a disciple of Canta-Gallina, and, at Nancy, of Claude Henriet. He soon gave himself up entirely to his love for engraving, and preferred etching, probably, because his active and fertile genius could, in that way, express itself more rapidly. In the space of 20 years, he designed and executed about 1600 pieces. (See the catalogue in the Cabinet de Singularités d'Architecture, Peinture, Sculpture et Gravure, by Le Comte, vol. 2, p. 376 to 392, and Gersaint's Catalogue de Lorangère.) In the composition, the disposition of the parts, and in the distribution of light, C. is not particularly eminent; but, in the single parts of his pieces, he is very successful. His drawing is correct; the attitudes mostly pleasing; the groups have considerable variety; harsh contrasts are avoided; the expression is vigorous; and the execution displays the ease of a master. He is particularly distinguished by the drawing of the little figures with which he has filled all his pieces. Most of them, except sacred subjects, are representa tions of battles, sieges, dances, festive processions. The Misères et Malheurs de la Guerre, in 18 pieces, are considered the best. He executed works of this kind for Cosmo II of Florence, Louis XIII of France, and the duke of Lorraine. He was so strongly inclined to the comic, that this disposition appears even in his representations of sacred subjects, for instance, in the Temptation of St. Anthony. He not only introduced some burlesque and grotesque figures in his engravings, but executed whole pictures in this style, in which his whole art is displayed. His Fair and his Beggars are called his best pieces. He was the first who used, in his etchings, the hard varnish--the vernice grosso dei lignaiuoli of the Italians. He died at Nancy, in 1635. He was distinguished for piety, magnanimity, and regularity of life. (See the biography of C. by Gersaint, or that of Husson, Paris, 1766.)

CALLUS is a preternatural hardness, whether carneous or osseous. The new growth of bony substance between the extremities of fractured bones, by which they are united, is an instance of the latter. External friction or pressure produces the former, as in the hands of laborers, and the feet of persons who wear tight shoes. (See Corns.)

CALMAR, the principal city of Sma

land, in Sweden, on the Baltic sea, is situated opposite to Oland, on the island of Quarnholm, and contains 4500 inhabitants. It has a small but good harbor, and carries on considerable trade in timber, alum and tar. It has also manufactures of woollen cloth, and is the residence of a bishop, and of the governor of the province. The well-fortified castle of C. lies outside of the city, on the strait of Oland. (For the ordinance called the Union of Calmar, see Margaret, queen of Denmark and Norway.)

CALMET, Augustine, distinguished as an exegetical and historical writer, born in 1672, at Mesnil-la-Horgne, in the diocese of Toul, entered, in 1688, into the Benedictine order at Toul, and studied chiefly in the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. Here he became, in 1698, teacher of philosophy and theology; in 1728, abbot of Senones, in Lorraine, and died, in 1757, at Paris. He was a judicious compiler of voluminous works, such as Commentaire sur tous les Livres de l'Anc. et de Nouv. Test. (Paris, 1707-16, 23 vols. 4to.), Dictionnaire Hist. et Crit. de la Bible (4 vols.), Histoire Eccl. et Civile de Lorraine (4 vols.) Acuteness and taste are wanting in his writings, and they have been censured both in France and in other countries.

CALMS, REGION of. In the Atlantic ocean, between the tropic of Cancer and lat. 29° N., and on the confines of the trade-winds, between 4° and 10° N. lat., calms of long duration prevail; and hence these tracts are called the calm latitudes, or the regions of calms. In the latter tract, particularly, these perpetual calms are accompanied by a suffocating heat, by thunder-storms and floods of rain, so that it is sometimes called the rainy sea. The only winds that occur are sudden squalls of short duration and little extent. In these calms, the provisions are corrupted, the seams open, and the stagnant air breeds disease. When a ship is in this position, if the currents set in towards rocks, and the sea is too deep to cast anchor, her destruction is almost inevitable. In the Mediterranean, where there are no tides, dead calms are more common than in the open ocean; but they are often the presages of approaching storms.

CALMUCS (Oelot, Eleuthes); the most remarkable branch of the Mongol race. They themselves maintain, that their primitive residence was situated between the Koko-Noor (the Blue Lake) and Thibet. Long before the time of Genghis Khan, a part of this people is said to have made an expedition to the west, as far as

Asia Minor, and to have lost themselves there among the mountains of Caucasus; but the rest, who had remained in Great Tartary, received, from their Tartar neighbors, the name of Khalimik (the separated). In fact, they call themselves, to this day, Khalimik, though Oelot, which signifies the same thing, continues to be their proper appellation. They have been divided, at least since the dismemberment of the Mongol empire, into four principal branches, called Khoschot, Derbet, Soongar, and Torgot. The greater portion of the Khoschot Calmucs has remained in and around Thibet and on the KokoNoor, and is said to have been under the protection of the Chinese since the downfall of the Soongar Calmucs. The smaller portion of this tribe had, long before, retired to the Irtish, and finally fell under the dominion of the Soongar horde, with which it took part in the war against China, and was dispersed with them. The horde of the Khoschots (warriors), which is still united under the Chinese sovereignty, received its name from the courage which it displayed under Genghis, and is rated at 50,000 souls. For this reason, and also because the family of their princes derives its origin immediately from the brother of the great Genghis, the Khoschots maintain the first rank among the Calmuc tribes. A part of them, about 1800 families, settled on the Wolga in 1759, and voluntarily submitted to the Russian sovereignty. At the dismemberment of the Mongol empire, the Soongar Calmucs constituted but one tribe with the Derbets, which was afterwards divided between two brothers of their princely family. In the 17th century, and the beginning of the 18th, this horde subjected a great part of the other Calmuc tribes, especially the Kho chot, Derbet and Khoit, and carried on bloody wars, both with the Mongols and with the Chinese empire, which terminated in their entire subjugation and dis persion. They were regarded as the bravest, richest and most powerful horde. The Derbet Calmucs, whose pasturegrounds were originally situated in the region of the Koko-Noor, departed from thence on account of the Mongol disturbances towards the Irtish, and separated into two parties. One of them became united with the Soongars, and was finally destroyed with them. The other settled on the Ural, Don and Wolga, and the majority of them joined the Torgots, but afterwards separated from them. The Torgot (Wolgaic) Calmucs seem to have

Catharine II. He now employed himself in refuting the charges which were brought against him. In his petition addressed to the king about the end of 1787, he takes a review of all his ministerial operations, and endeavors to prove that he had always for his object the improvement of the finances. The archbishop of Toulouse, his successor, had informed him of the personal displeasure of the king; the parliaments of Grenoble, Toulouse, Besançon, had made him the object of public animadversion; the parliament of Paris had come forward formally against him. C. defended himself against all these attacks. He besought the king to declare, that he had constantly acted by his express command or with his consent, and offered, in case the king should be silent, to justify himself before the tribunal of peers, before which he had been accused. To all the charges brought against him, his friends opposed this fact, which is certainly true, that he retired from the ministry poor. In a letter of C. to the king, Feb. 9, 1789, containing political reflections, and principally directed against Necker, he manifested the intention of offering himself a candidate for the states-general. He actually made his appearance in the electoral assembly of the nobility of Bailleul, but returned to London without effecting his purpose, where he employed himself in writing on the state of affairs in France. The revolution had, in the mean time, begun. C. took part in it with a zeal which seemed to exceed his powers. His negotiations, his journeys to Germany, Italy and Russia, his perseverance, his attachment to their cause, made him invaluable to the party which he served. In order to assist his unfortunate party with the pen, he wrote his Tableau de l'Europe en Novembre, 1795, remarkable on account of its warmth, and its faithful delineation of events. From that time he lived in London, principally occupied with the fine arts, which he had always cultivated with taste. In 1802, he returned to Paris, where he died in October of the same year. Such was the career of a minister who gave the first impulse to the French revolution. He possessed, in a high degree, the qualities requisite to a great states man-an accurate acquaintance with details, together with comprehensive views, and the power of conceiving extensive projects. But, if wisdom which matures the conceptions, if a prophetic glance which foresees all the impediments, if consistency and a spirit of method which

provides for the success of the execution, are essential to a statesman, then C. can lay no claim to that title. A knowledge of human nature was wanting in his character. His morals were far from being strict. His works, among which his speeches and memorials to the notables deserve the first place, are valuable contributions to the history of financial administration.

CALORIC is the name given, in chemistry, to that agent which produces the phenomena of heat and combustion. It is hypothetically regarded as a subtile fluid, the particles of which repel one another, and are attracted by all other substances. It is imponderable, and, by its distribution, in various proportions, among the particles of matter, gives rise to the three general forms of gas, liquids and solids. The particles of water, by losing caloric, have their cohesion so much increased, that they assume the solid form of ice; by adding caloric, they again become fluid; and by a still further addition, they are converted into vapor.Caloric exists in two different states-free or uncombined, and in a state of combination. In the former condition, it creates the sensation of heat, and produces expansion in other bodies. The power which any body has of exciting the sensation of heat, and occasioning expansion, is understood by the expression of its temperature. This is supposed to vary with the quantity of free caloric in a given quantity of matter; a high temperature being ascribed to the presence of a large quantity of free caloric, and a low temperature to that of a small quantity. We are ignorant, however, of the extremes of temperature, and may compare it to a chain, of which a few of the middle links, only, are exposed to our observation, while its extremities are concealed from our view.-The expansion of bodies is one of the most universal effects of an increase of temperature. This increase in bulk, however, is not the same in all bodies. The same increase of temperature causes liquids to expand more than solids, and aëriform bodies much more than either. On this principle are constructed the various instruments for meas uring temperature; since the degree of expansion produced by caloric bears a sufficient proportion to its quantity to afford us the means of ascertaining it with tolerable accuracy. Our senses, it is obvious, are quite inadequate to afford us this information; for we compare our sensations of heat, not with any fixed or

uniform standard, but with those sensations which we have had immediately previous. Hence, the same portion of water will feel warm to a hand removed from contact with snow, and cold to another hand which has been heated before the fire. To convey precise notions of temperature, therefore, we are obliged to describe the degree of expansion produced in some one body which has been previously agreed upon as a standard of comparison. The standard most generally adopted is quicksilver, which is contained in a glass ball, terminating a long, narrow tube. This instrument is called a thermometer. If quicksilver, or, indeed, any other substance except the gases, suffered equal expansion by equal increments of the calorific power, then this instrument would be perfect; but the same increase of bulk is not effected in the same liquid or solid, at all temperatures, by adding similar quantities of heat; for bodies expand, by equal increments of caloric, more in high than in low temperatures, because the force opposing expansion is diminished by the interposition of caloric between the particles of bodies; and, therefore, when equal quantities of caloric are added in succession, the last portions meet with less resistance to their expansive force than the first. In gases, on the contrary, which are destitute of cohesion, equal increments of heat appear to be attended with equal augmentations of bulk.—The tendency to an equilibrium is a characteristic of free caloric. Any number of different bodies, unequally heated, when exposed, in an apartment, to the same temperature, gradually arrive to an equality of temperature. It is in obedience to this law, that we experience the sensations of heat and cold when we touch bodies which are warmer or colder than ourselves. There exists much diversity in the rapidity with which different substances abstract caloric when in contact with a body in which it is accumulated. Common air and gases abstract it but tardily, while wood, stones and metals acquire it more rapidly. According to their power of conducting it off under these circumstances, bodies are divided into conductors and non-conductors of caloric; and, in general, the power of conduction varies with the densities of bodies. But this tendency of caloric to an equilibrium is not established solely by the agency of intermediate bodies or communication. A part of it moves through the atmosphere, like light, in right lines, and with

immeasurable velocity, and has, therefore, been called radiant caloric. The comparative quantities lost by radiation and by conduction may be approximated by observing what time it takes to cool any body through the same number of degrees in air and in vacuo. Thus doctor Franklin imagined he had ascertained that a body, which requires five minutes to cool in vacuo, will cool in air, through the same number of degrees, in two minutes. Count Rumford's experiments, with a Torricellian vacuum, give the proportions of five to three.-Radiant caloric passes only through transparent media, or free space. When, in its passage, its rays impinge upon the surface of a solid or a liquid substance, they are either reflected from it, and thus receive a new direction, or they lose their radiant form altogether, and are absorbed. In the latter case, the temperature of the receiving substance is increased; in the former, it is unchanged.-The nature of the surface of a body has been found to influence powerfully both the radiation and absorption of caloric. The energy of calorific emanation from a cubical tin vessel, coated with different substances, and containing warm water (as determined by the differential thermometer of Leslie), gave, with a covering of Lampblack, Isinglass, Tarnished lead, Polished iron,

100

75

45

15

Tin-plate, gold, silver or copper, . . 12 Similar results were obtained simply by noting the rates of cooling in vessels of similar shapes and capacities with various surfaces. Useful lessons have been derived from these discoveries. Tea and coffee-pots, which are intended to retain their heat, are made of bright and polished metals; and steam-pipes, intended to convey heat to distant apartments, are kept bright in their course, but darkened where they reach their destination. The power of different surfaces to absorb caloric was found, by coating one of the bulbs of the differential thermometer successively with different substances, and presenting it to an uniformly heated substance, to follow the same order as the radiating or projecting quality.—With regard to combined caloric, it has been shown that solids, during liquefaction, imbibe a quantity of caloric, which ceases to be obvious, both to our senses and to the thermometer. The same is also true of solids and liquids in their conversion