theatres might be much enriched. It is to be regretted that his works have not been chronologically arranged. We might then have traced the growth of mysticism in his mind, and seen it striking root more deeply as he advanced in life. At the age of 62, he was admitted into the fraternity of San Pedro. In 1687, he was elected their capelan mayor. He left them all his property, for which they erected a splendid monument to his memory. He died May 25, 1687, aged 87. Among his imitators, Tirso de Molina is worthy of mention, as the author of the Inflexible Stranger, which has been often imitated, and is the groundwork of the celebrated opera of Don Juan.

CALEB, of the tribe of Juda, born B. C. 1530, was sent with Joshua and 10 others to examine the Land of Canaan. When Joshua had conquered the country, C. reminded the Jews of the promise, which had been made by God, that they should enjoy this country. He obtained the city of Hebron for his share of the spoil, besieged and captured it, and drove out three giants, or Anakim. He then marched against Kirjath-Sepher, and of fered his daughter Achsah to the first who should enter it. Othniel, his nephew, was the successful aspirant for the fair Jewess.

CALEDONIA; the ancient name of Scotland. (q. v.)

CALEDONIA; a town in New York, on the west side of the Genesee, 20 miles south-west of Rochester, 235 west of Albany. The village is situated on the great road from Albany to Buffalo, produces wheat in great quantities, and has several beds of gypsum; also limestone, iron ore, salt and sulphur springs. Great or Big springs, situated on the north side of the village, are regarded as a curiosity. The waters, which are impregnated with sulphur and lime, boil up in great quantities from the earth in a pond or reservoir of five acres. In this pond, except at the places where the water boils up, grows a singular weed, five or six feet high, and so thick as to be almost impenetrable. The surface of the water is covered with a frothy substance, which, when dried, has a very offensive smell. The temperature of the water is always nearly the same, extremely cold, but never freezes. A fine mill-stream issues from this pond; and the quantity of water is little affected by rain or drought.

CALEDONIA, New; a country of North America, west of the Rocky mountains, extending about 500 miles from north to south, and nearly 400 from east to west.

It is mountainous; abounds in lakes, the largest of which are Stuart's lake and Natteotain lake. The largest rivers are Fraser's and Natteotain rivers. The thermometer sometimes falls 32 degrees below zero; but the seasons are generally milder than in the same parallel east of the Rocky mountains. The summer is never very hot. The natives call themselves Ta-cullies. The whites call them Carriers. They are estimated at 5000.

CALEDONIA, New; a large island in the Pacific ocean, from 220 to 250 miles long, and 50 broad. It is rendered dangerous of approach by formidable reefs, extending 270 miles beyond the island. The danger is increased by the current setting directly on the breakers. Lon. 163° to 167° E.; lat. 20° to 22° 26′ S. It was discovered by Cook, in his second voyage (1774), who remained on the coast a week. D'Entrecasteaux was the first who sailed completely round it (1792 and 1793). A chain of mountains, 2500 feet high, extends through the island, from the summits of which the sea is visible on both sides. The island produces the bread-fruit-tree, banana, sugar-cane, arum and cocoa, although the soil is by no means fertile. The animals are very few. A spider called nookee forms threads so large as to offer a sensible resistance before breaking. They are eaten by the people. Their other articles of food are not more choice. Like the Ottomacs of South America, described by Humboldt, they eat steatite-a soft, friable, greenish earth, containing magnesia, silex and iron. Cook and Forster described them as gentle, simple, kind and honest. D'Entrecasteaux represents them as cruel, perfidious and thievish. The women were hired for a nail. Recent observation has shown them to be cannibals. They are armed with darts and clubs, but do not use the bow. Their huts are small, and filled with smoke, to defend them from insects. Their language is different from that of Polynesia, and is described as harsh and croaking, Their dress is a girdle of fibrous bark. They also wear ornaments of bone or coral, and paint their breasts with wide black streaks Their hair is nearly woolly, the surface of their bodies shiny and black. Some have the thick lips of the African Negro.

CALEDONIANS; the name of a confederacy of tribes in what is now Scotland (Britannia Barbara). Tacitus supposes them to be Germans; others, with more reason, Celts, They are the ancestors of the modern Highlanders.

CALEMBOURG; a kind of pun, in which a word is employed in an unusual sense, or by which, without regard to grammar or orthography, some letters are changed, added or left out, without changing the pronunciation. Thus a calembourg is distinguished from the proper jeu de mot. A Westphalian count Calemberg, who lived in Paris under Louis XV, is said to have amused the circles there by his blunders in the French language, and occasioned the marquis Biévre to introduce this new kind of witticism. As an instance, we adduce the following:-A robber demanded from a traveller his purse, putting a pistol to his breast, with the words "La bourse, ou la vie." "Pour l'avis (la vie)," the traveller answered, dryly, "le meilleur que je puisse vous donner, est de quitter votre métier, sans quoi vous serez pendu, et pour la bourse (hairbag) je n'en ai pas, parceque je porte un cadogan (hair-knot).” The French language is rich in such puns, because it is poor in words, and these, consequently, may be taken in different significations, (See Pun.)

CALENBERG; a principality in the kingdom of Hanover, which derives its name from an ancient castle, now in ruins, situated 11 or 12 miles south of Hanover. Its extent is 1050 square miles. It has about 139,222 inhabitants, chiefly Lutherans. (See Hanover.)

CALENDAR; the division of time into years, months, weeks and days; also a register of these divisions. Among the old Romans, for want of such a register, it was the custom for the pontifex maximus, on the first day of the month, to proclaim (calare) the month, with the festivals occurring in it, and the time of new moon. Hence calenda and calendar. The periodical occurrence of certain natural phenomena gave rise to the first division of time. The apparent daily revolution of the starry heavens and the sun about the earth occasioned the division into days. But, as the number of days became too great for convenience, some larger measure of time was found necessary. The changes of the moon, which were observed to recur every 29 or 30 days, suggested the division of time into months. After a considerable period, these also were found to multiply too much, and a still larger measure of time was wanted. Such a one was found in the apparent yearly revolution of the sun round the earth in the ecliptic. The time of this revolution, after several erroneous calculations hereafter to be mentioned,

was finally determined to be a little more than 365 days. This was called a solar year, or, simply, a year, which was divided, according to the former measures of time, into months and days. Now, on account of the great influence of the sun's course in the ecliptic, and its consequent variations of distance from us upon the earth, and the affairs of its inhabitants in all countries, the attention of men would⚫ naturally be drawn to this phenomenon. Hence it has happened that all nations, in any degree civilized, have adopted the year as the largest measure of time. It is probable that the Phoenicians first, then the Egyptians, and afterwards the Greeks, made use of this mode of reckoning, from whom it was communicated to other nations. The division of the year, however, into months and days, could not have been very accurate at first, because it can be settled only by long and attentive observation. The calendar of the oldest nations was quite imperfect. They were satisfied with one which enabled them to manage the common business of husbandry. The Greeks were the first who attempted to adjust the courses of the sun and the moon to each other. For this purpose, they reckoned 12 revolutions of the moon round the earth for one solar year; and, to avoid the fractions of a month, they made the year consist of 13 and 12 months alternately. Solon, perceiving the defects of this arrangement, fixed the number of days in a month at 29, and made the month consist of 29 and 30 days alternately. Still the length of the month and that of the year were not brought into exact adjustment, and new disorders soon followed. Various plans for the reformation of the calendar were proposed from time to time; but all proved insufficient, till Meton and Enctemon finally succeeded in bringing it to a much greater degree of accuracy, by fixing on the period of 19 years, in which time the new moons return upon the same days of the year as before (as 19 solar years are very nearly equal to 235 lunations). (See Cycle.) This mode of computation, first adopted by the Greeks (433 B. C.), was so much approved of, that it was engraven with golden letters on a tablet at Athens. Hence the number, showing what year of the moon's cycle any given year is, is called the golden number. This period of 19 years was found, however, to be about six hours too long. This defect Calippus, about 102 years later, endeavored to remedy, but still failed to make the beginning of the

seasons return on the same fixed day of the year. Among the Romans, their first king, Romulus, introduced a year of 10 divisions or months, of which 4 (namely, March, May, July and October) contained 31 days; the rest (April, June, August, September, November and December), only 30. When he discovered that this mode of reckoning was imperfect, he inserted as many days as were necessary to complete the year, and bring it up to the beginning of the following one. His successor, Numa Pompilius, abolished this method, added 50 days more, took 1 day from each of the 6 months containing 30 days, because even numbers were supposed to be unlucky, and out of the whole 56 days formed 2 new months of 28 days each, which he called January and February. Thus the year consisted of 12 months, and 350 days; and, to make it agree with the course of the sun, intercalations were made use of, after the manner of the Greeks. These intercalations, however, were left to the discretion of the priests; and, as they made them very arbitrarily, according to the exigences of the state, or their own private views, complaints and irregularities soon arose. Notwithstanding this defect, the arrangement continued to the end of the republican constitution. The calendar of the Romans had a very peculiar arrangement. They gave particular names to 3 days of the month. The first day was called the calends. In the 4 months of March, May, July and October, the 7th, in the others, the 5th day, was called the nones; and, in the 4 former, the 15th, in the rest, the 13th day, was called the ides. The other days they distinguished in the following manner:-they counted from the above-mentioned days backwards, observing to reckon also the one from which they began. Thus the 3d of March, according to the Roman reckoning, would be the 5th day before the nones, which, in that month, fall upon the 7th. The 8th of January, in which month the nones happen on the 5th, and the ides on the 13th, was called the 6th before the ides of January. Finally, to express any of the days after the ides, they reckoned in a similar manner from the calends of the following month. From the inaccuracy of the Roman method of reckoning, it appears that, in Cicero's time, the calendar brought the vernal equinox almost two months later than it ought to be. According to the last letter of the 10th book of Cicero's Epistles to Atticus, this equinox was not

This

yet past, although it was near the end of May, by their calendar. To check this irregularity, Julius Caesar, on being appointed dictator and pontiff (A. U. C. 707), invited the Greek astronomer Sosigenes to Rome, who, with the assistance of Marcus Fabius, invented that mode of reckoning, which, after him who introduced it into use, has been called the Julian calendar. The chief improvement consisted in restoring the equinox to its proper place in March. For this purpose, two months were inserted between November and December, so that the year 707, called, from this circumstance, the year of confusion, contained 14 months. In the number of days, the Greek computation was adopted, which made it 3651. The number and names of the months were kept unaltered, with the exception of Quintilis, which was henceforth called, in honor of the author of the improvement, Julius. To dispose of the quarter of a day, it was determined to intercalate a day every fourth year, between the 23d and 24th of February. This was called an intercalary day, and the year in which it took place was called an intercalary year, or, as we term it, a leap year. calendar continued in use among the Romans until the fall of the empire, and throughout Christendom till 1582. The festivals of the Christian church were determined by it. With regard to Easter, however, it was necessary to have reference to the course of the moon. Jews celebrated Easter (i. e., the Passover) on the 14th of the month Nisan (or March); the Christians in the same month, but always on a Sunday. Now, as the Easter of the Christians sometimes coincided with the Passover of the Jews, and it was thought unchristian to celebrate so important a festival at the same time as the Jews did, it was resolved, at the council of Nice, 325 A. D., that, from that time, Easter should be solemnized on the Sunday following the first full-moon after the vernal equinox, which was then suppos ed to take place on the 21st of March. As the course of the moon was thus made the foundation for determining the time of Easter, the lunar cycle of Meton was taken for this purpose; according to which the year contains 365 days, and the new moons, after a period of 19 years, return on the same days as before. The inaccuracy of the Julian year, thus combined with the lunar cycle, must have soon discovered itself, on a comparison with the true time of the commencement of the equinoxes, since the received length

The

of 365 days exceeds the true by about 11 minutes; so that, for every such Julian year, the equinox receded 11 minutes, or a day in about 130 years. In consequence of this, in the 16th century, the vernal equinox had changed its place in the calendar from the 21st to the 10th; i. e., it really took place on the 10th instead of the 21st, on which it was placed in the calendar. Aloysius Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan for amending the calendar, which, after his death, was presented by his brother to pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the pope assembled a number of prelates and learned men. In 1577, the proposed change was adopted by all the Catholic princes; and, in 1582, Gregory issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all Catholic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, under the name of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the new style, as the other was now called the old style. The amendment consisted in this:-10 days were dropped after the 4th of Oct., 1582, and the 15th was reckoned immediately after the 4th. Every 100th year, which, by the old style, was to have been a leap year, was now to be a common year, the 4th excepted; i. e., 1600 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 1800, 1900, to be of the common length, and 2000 a leap year again. In this calendar, the length of the solar year was taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds. Later observations of Zach, Lalande and Delambre fix the average length of the tropical year at about 27 seconds less; but it is unnecessary to direct the attention of the reader to the error arising from this difference, as it will amount to a day only in the space of 3000 years. Notwithstanding the above improvement, the Protestants retained the Julian calendar till 1700, when they also adopted the new style, with this difference, that they assigned the feast of Easter to the day of the first full moon after the astronomical equinox. But this arrangement produced new variations. In 1724 and 1744, the Easter of the Catholics was eight days later than that of the Protestants. On this account, the Gregorian calendar was finally adopted, 1777, in Germany, under the name of the general calendar of the empire, or, as it is now called, the reformed calendar, in order that the Catholics and Protestants might celebrate Easter, and, consequently, all the movable feasts, at the same time. England introduced the new style in 1752, and Sweden in 1753. Russia only re

tains the old style, which now differs 12 days from the new.-In France, during the revolution, a new calendar was introduced by a decree of the national convention, Nov. 24, 1793. The time from which the new reckoning was to commence was the autumnal equinox of 1792, which fell upon the 22d of Sept., at 18 minutes and 30 seconds after 9 A. M., Paris time. This day was selected as that on which the first decree of the new republic had been promulgated. The year was made to consist of 12 months of 30 days each, and, to complete the full number of days, 5 jours complementaires were added to the end of it, in common years, and 6 in leap years. Each period of 4 years, terminating with a leap year, was called a franciade. Instead of weeks, each month was divided into 3 parts, called decades, consisting of 10 days each; the other divisions being also accommodated to the decimal system. The names of the months were so chosen as to indicate, by their etymology, the time of year to which they belonged. They were as follows:--Autumn, from the 22d Sept. to the 22d Dec.; Vendémiaire, vintage month (Oct.); Brumaire, foggy month (Nov.); Frimaire, sleet mouth (Dec.):Winter, from 22d Dec. to 22d March; Nivôse, snowy month (Jan.); Ventôse, windy month (Feb.); Pluviose, rainy month (March):-Spring, from 22d March to 22d June; Germinal, bud month (April); Floréal, flower month (May); Prairial, meadow month (June):-Summer, from 22d June to 22d Sept.; Messidor, harvest month (July); Thermidor, hot month (Aug.); Fructidor, fruit month (Sept.).—The 10 days of each decade were called, 1. Primidi, 2. Duodi, 3. Tridi, 4. Quartidi, 5. Quintidi, 6. Sextidi, 7. Septidi, 8. Octidi, 9. Nonidi, 10. Decadi (the Sabbath). Besides this, each day in the year had its particular name, appropriate to the time when it occurred; e. g., the 7th of vintage month, Vendémiaire, was named carottes (carrots). This calendar was abolished, at the command of Napoleon, by a decree of the senate, 9th Sept., 1805, and the common Christian or Gregorian calendar introduced throughout the French empire. (For a pretty full historical account of this subject, see Busch's Handbuch der Erfindungen, vol. vii. p. 152 et seq.; also Gebelin's Histoire du Calendrier. There are also astronomical calendars, to which the Astronomical Year-Book of professor Bode belongs, and of which 50 vols. had appeared in 1822. It is still continued. Of

the same class are the Paris Connoissance des Temps, and the London Nautical Almanac. See Almanac and Chronology.) CALENDER. Different fabrics, before they leave the hands of the manufacturer, are subjected to certain processes, the object of which is to make them smooth and glossy, to glaze them, to water them, or give them a wavy appearance. This is done, in general, by pressing the fabric between wooden or metallic cylinders, whence the machine is called a calender, and the workman a calender or calenderer.

CALENDERS; a sect of dervises in Turkey and Persia. They are not very strict in their morals, nor in very high esteem among the Mohammedans. They preach in the market-places, and live upon alms. Their name is derived from their founder. (See Dervise.)

CALENDS, with the Romans, the first days of the month; so called because the pontifex maximus then proclaimed (calavit) whether the nones would be on the 5th or the 7th. This was the custom until the year 450 U. C., when the fasti calendares, or calendar (q. v.), were affixed to the wall of public places. The Greeks did not make use of calends; whence the proverbial expression ad Græcas calendas (on the Greek calends), meaning never. The calends of January were more solemn than the others, and were consecrated to Janus and Juno. On this day, the magistrates entered on their offices, and friends interchanged presents. On the calends, debtors were obliged to pay the interest of their debts; hence tristes calenda (Hor. Serm. 1 Sat. 3. v. 87). The book of accounts was called Calendarium. -Calends, in ecclesiastical history, denotes conferences, anciently held by the clergy of each deanery on the first of each month, concerning their duty and conduct. (Du Cange, in voce.)

CALENTURE; a violent fever, incident to persons in hot climates, especially to such as are natives of cooler climates. It is attended with delirium; and the patient imagines the sea to be a green field, in which he is tempted to walk by the coolness and freshness of its appearance. This is, at least, the poetical explanation of the matter. The fact seems to be, that the intense inflammation of the fever prompts the patient to plunge into cold water to relieve his sufferings.

The

CALEPIN (French); a lexicon. name is derived from Calepino, a famous grammarian and lexicographer of the 15th century, who was the author of a poly

glot dictionary, which has passed through numerous editions, and been enlarged by different editors. The most complete edition is that of Bâle, 1590, fol., in 11 languages. This work was usually called the Calepin, and such was its celebrity, that the name became a common appellation for a learned lexicon.

CALIBER; the interior diameter of the bore of any piece of ordnance, or the diameter of a shot or shell.-Caliber or calliper compasses are a sort of compasses with arched legs, used in the artillery practice, to take the diameter of any round body, particularly of shot or shells, the bore of ordnance, &c. The instrument consists of two thin pieces of brass, joined by a rivet, so as to move quite round each other. It contains a number of tables, rules, &c., connected with the artillery practice.

CALICO; a cotton cloth, which derives its name from Calicut, a city of India, from which it was first brought. In England, white or unprinted cotton cloth is called calico. In the U. States, printed cloth only is called by that name. Calico printing is a combination of the arts of engraving and dyeing, and is used to produce, upon woven fabrics, chiefly of cotton, a variety of ornamental combinations, both of figure and color. In this process, the whole fabric is immersed in the dyeing liquid; but it is previously prepared in such a manner, that the dye adheres only to the parts intended for the figure, while it leaves the remaining parts unaltered. In calico-printing, adjective colors are most frequently employed. The cloth is prepared by bleaching, and other processes, which dispose it to receive the color. It is then printed with the mordant, in a manner similar to that of copperplateprinting, except that the figure is engraved upon a cylinder instead of a plate. The cylinder, in one part of its revolution, becomes charged with the mordant, mixed to a proper consistence with starch. The superfluous part of the mordant is then scraped off by a straight steel edge, in contact with which the cylinder revolves, leaving only that part which remains in the lines of the figure. The cloth then passes in forcible contact with the other side of the cylinder, and receives from it a complete impression of the figure in the pale color of the mordant. The cloth is then passed through the coloring-bath, in which the parts previ ously printed become dyed with the intended color. When it is afterwards exposed and washed, the color disappears