subjects of the sculptor, and seem, eventually, to have given rise to the introduction of the worship of images in the Christian churches, since the custom of erecting monuments and statues to the emperors, and distinguished bishops, was extended to martyrs and saints, and was afterwards followed by the superstitious worship of them. (See Iconoclasts.) Though images of this kind became more frequent in the third and fourth centuries, there were yet many Christian teachers, who, like Tertullian (q. v.), at an early period, declared the fine arts inventions of the devil, and the pagan statues possessed by demons. This superstition often caused the destruction of the noblest statues of the Grecian gods by popular violence. It was not until after many difficulties, that, in the ninth century, the worship of images was established in the Greek empire, and after that time appeared the first known traces of Christian sculpture and painting in the East. But even those statues, to which sculpture was now confined, no longer displayed the freedom and dignity of ancient art. The pride of the emperors demanded statues of gold and silver, as long as their treasury, filled by exhausting their subjects, could supply them. Images of bronze and marble were despised. And how seldom could the artist be inspired by his subject, when flattery erected monuments and busts to the most worthless of men! It was natural, that, with the loss of elevated subjects, the dignity of art should be lost in petty technical details. Heyne, in his treatise on the later works of art, under the Byzantine emperors (Commentat. Soc. Götting., vol. xi), observes, that the representations of the emperors, of distinguished men, or of saints, were uniform in figure and character. The vestiges of genius were nowhere seen in free creations and ideal forms, in the desire of truth and expression. From the time of Justinian downwards, the true measure and proportion of the parts, and the correctness of the outlines, were so much neglected, that the representations became constantly more like masks, spectres and monsters. The old Roman faces were seldom represented the forms appeared to belong to quite another race-to some new nation; and it was often necessary to write the names under them. In the perspective of the figures no rules were observed. It became, at this time, the great object to imitate the costly robes of the emperors, bishops, and other noble persons, who gratified their vanity not only with purple

garments, but by the extravagant use of pearls and precious stones, which were worn in long pendants from the ear, in bracelets and in necklaces. The whole mantle was often garnished with precious stones, and round the edge ran a double row of pearls. Such garments the emperors used to change several times a day. As such exterior ornaments are foreign from sculpture, which prefers the naked figure, or a simple drapery, it is easy to see why the production of statues ceased so soon. In the lists of Byzantine works of sculpture given by authors of the first centuries, there are no images of Christ, no statues of apostles and saints. Instead of them, we find only crucifixes, painted, or ornamented with mosaic work. If there were any such images in earlier times, they must have been destroyed in the time of the Iconoclasts (q. v.), as was the case with the bronze statue of Christ, near that of Constantine, which was demolished by Leo, the general destroyer of images, and the representations of the Good Shepherd, praised by Eusebius, and that of Daniel among the Lions, with which Constantine adorned the public fountains. An image of the Savior, surrounded by angels, and worked in mosaic, is described by Photius. We also find mention of the images of two angels upon the forum of Constantine, the representation of Adam and Eve, the bronze statue of Moses, with which Justinian is said to have ornamented the curia, and that of Solomon, of an earlier date. According to Eusebius, the roof of the palace in Constantinople was also decorated with rich mosaics of gold and costly stones, representing scenes from the passion of Christ; and another, which Justinian erected, in Chalcis, contained representations of events in the war against the Vandals. The most celebrated of all the mosaics in the interior of St. Sophia's church in Constantinople has been preserved in fragments to modern times. The taste of those times inclined, in general, more to mosaic works than to sculpture; because the former were rendered attractive by the costliness and colors of the stones. Sculpture was employed particularly in ornamenting altars, tabernacles, holy vessels and urns, which were made of the most precious marble. The art of engraving on stones was also long preserved. In the art of painting, which was imitated in mosaic, the taste of this age was the same as in sculpture-pleased with gold and lively colors, but careless about truth of representation, and beauty and grandeur of

conception. The first germ of a Christian style of art was, however, developed in the Byzantine pictures. The ideal representations of human figures, which the ancient Grecian artists had exhibited in their master-works, were necessarily given up by Christian artists: another ideal was to be formed, which should not recall the odious features of paganism. But the ideal of the Savior, of the mother of Christ, and of his apostles, could be formed only by degrees. The artists, who had nothing real and material before them, but were obliged to find, in their own imaginations, conceptions of the external appearance of sacred persons, could give but feeble sketches of their ideas by means of their imperfect art. In their representations of Jesus and his apostles, they finally adopted the national features of the Jews. In the figure, and sometimes even in the countenance, they imitated the external appearance of some revered bishop. The hands were often lifted, as in blessing, or one hand was laid upon the breast, or holding a book. Thus the figures of the founders of the Christian church were first represented in paintings. They were also exhibited in mosaic, but not in marble. Christian subjects, indeed, are generally more suited to painting, which gives the outward expression of the mind, by means of light, and shade, and colors, than to sculpture, which, on the contrary, elevates the external form to a kind of spiritual dignity. As the artists cared but little for a faithful imitation of nature, but were satisfied with repeating what was once acknowledged as successful, it is not strange that certain forms, introduced by the authority of some celebrated artists, and approved by the taste of the time, should be made, by convention, and without regard to truth and beauty, general models of the human figure, and be transmitted as such to succeeding times. In his treatise on the continuation of the arts in Constantinople (Comment. Soc., Götting., vol. xiii), Heyne remarks, that art continued to be exercised here, as far as it consists in mechanical skill, in the use of instruments, in particular rules and general precepts; but taste, and a sense for truth and simple beauty, had vanished. Delicacy, elegance and gracefulness in design, proportion of parts, harmony of the figures, and beauty of form, were lost. The artists did not even aim at an accurate representation, but were contented with rude and general outlines, as may be seen in the coins of the time. These deformed and meagre figures were slavishly

copied, and labor was lavished on costly, and often tasteless, ornaments. A certain propensity to the grotesque prevailed, even in architecture. The influence of ancient works of art continually decreased as their number was diminished by the violences of war, by superstition, by ava rice, and by the hand of time. Most of the then existing works of antiquity perished in the capture of Constantinople, during the crusades of 1204 and 1261; and thus the city had long been deprived of its most beautiful ornaments, when it was taken by the Turks, in 1453.-This was, in general, the state of art in the Byzantine empire. Its influence has been felt ever since; in earlier times, by the connexion of the imperial residence in the East with the Western Empire, and afterwards by commercial intercourse and the crusades.-Let us first consider this connexion of the lower Greek art with the west of Europe, and, in particular, with Italy. According to Stieglitz (on German Architecture), the character of the lower Greek architecture was tranquillity and simplicity, originating from poverty of ideas and materials, and terminating in heaviness. But this architecture, which prevailed till the earlier part of the middle ages, preserved the seed, from which, in later times, a new and better style sprung up. Constantinople became a school of architecture, from which artists issued to all parts of the Roman empire, as far as Britain, to erect churches after the model of St. Sophia. They also penetrated into the countries of the East, introducing their art among the Arabians, who applied it to the erection of their mosques, and among the Moors in Spain, who formed their own style from it. The lower Greek or Byzantine style kept itself pure and uncorrupted in Italy, under the Lombards, as well as under the Goths, whose artists came from the East; and thence it spread, during the reign of Charlemagne, to Germany, Gaul and England. The style of architecture introduced by Charlemagne into Germany, was a corruption of that prevailing in the lower Grock empire, from which, together with the Arabian and German style, sprang the true German or Gothic architecture, which flourished from the 13th to the 16th century. (See Architecture, History of.) The basso-relievos on the oldest churches in Germany, and some pictures in them, stili show the traces of the lower Grecian art. There are also to be found in Gori (e.. Diptych, vol. 3, p. 33 and 270, tab. iv aud xxiii) and Ciampini (Vet. Moniment., part

ii, p. 104, tab. xxix), representations of Italian and Gallic sculpture, which, in their drapery, ornaments and architectural forms, betray a Byzantine origin. In regard to painting, we are indebted to the Byzantines for the preservation of some portion of its ancient excellence. As, in the early period of Christianity, Grecian and Roman art, in general, differed but little, since both sprung from the ruins of ancient art, so, in painting, no striking difference is to be observed between them. They became, however, constantly more and more distinct, in later times, as Greece and Italy became more and more separated. Short, thick bodies, stiff and forced attitudes, exaggeration of the characteristic parts, in particular of the eyes, faces contracted above and broad below, and marked with overcharged tints, short thick hair, highly-arched eyebrows, awkward drapery, loaded with unnatural folds, distinguish the Greek pictures as far back as the fifth century. The better paintings, which are found particularly in manuscripts, show a neat, accurate and diligent execution. When art declined in Italy, particularly in the ninth century, painting was still cultivated by the Greeks, who, driven from home by the disputes concerning images, carried it into Italy and other countries, and adorned the churches there. Thus the lower Greek or Byzantine school was the mother of the old Italian school, and of the lower Rhenish, which preceded the German. The relation of both is seen in the similarity of the Italian pictures to those of the lower Rhenish school. According to the common statement, several Grecian artists passed over into Italy, in the beginning of the 12th century, and adorned the churches of Florence and Venice with their works. These were joined by the Italian artists, who founded, in the 13th century, a school of art and painting (see Italian Art), which, in its developement, acquired a peculiar character, distinguished by beauty both of conception and execution. The lower Rhenish school, however, which is also called the school of Cologne, as it flourished chiefly, from the beginning of the 14th to the beginning of the 15th centuries, in the city of Cologne, appears to have retained still

more closely the Byzantine character than the Italian did, since there are traces of it even in the later German school, exhibited in the symmetrical and pyramidal grouping of the objects, in the close drapery, and in the love of ornament and splendor, shown particularly in the golden back-grounds. The collection of the brothers Boisserée (q. v.) contains the most excellent works of this school. John Van Eyck first set the example of a more individual representation of natural objects, in opposition to the general representations of the lower Greek, and the ideal style of the old Roman school. More exact accounts are wanting of the historical connexion of the lower Rhenish and of the old Italian school with the Byzantine style of art. (On the earlier times of the Byzantine art, see Histoire de l'Art par les Monumens depuis sa Décadence au 14me Siecle, jusqu'à son Renouvellement au 16me; Paris, 1810, folio).

BYZANTIUM (from its original founder, Byzas), lying on the Thracian Bosphorus, on a triangular promontory, the present Constantinople, even in ancient times a flourishing city, was at first a Megarian colony, and was afterwards enlarged and embellished by the Milesians and other Greeks. Near it was a small bay of the Propontis, called Keras, forming three harbors. The situation of B. was highly favorable to trade, and gave it the command of the commerce of other nations in the Black sea, and the opportunity of imposing tolls and duties. These circumstances increased the resources of the city; but it suffered much from the attacks of the Thracians, Bithynians, Gauls, and even the Greeks. It was severely treated in the Peloponnesian war, but afterwards rose again, and, under the emperors, was in the most flourishing condition. From the time of Constantine, it was the second city in the Roman empire, and the residence of the emperor, who endeavored to give it the splendor of old Rome. It was, like Rome, divided into 14 districts; had an amphitheatre, a Roman forum, a circus, and a multitude of splendid buildings and statues, some of which had been brought from Rome. (See Constantinople.)

C, THE third letter of the alphabet in most of the European dialects. "In English," says Ben Jonson, "it might well have been spared, for it has no peculiar sound." It has the simple power of k, before a, o, u, and most of the consonants; and the power of s, before e, i, y. The Greeks had no c in their alphabet, and they supplied the use of it in Roman words by K or E, as the Romans often indicated the kappa and sigma, in Greek words, by a c. The earlier Romans also used it in many words which were at a later period written with a g; as, leciones for legiones. This renders it probable that it was originally the Greek gamma, as the form of the letters, in ancient inscriptions, is very similar. The Roman g was invented, according to Plutarch, by Spurius Carvilius. Q and C are often interchanged on monuments; thus we find QVM for CVM, cotidie for quotidie. Its arithmetical significations, and its principal uses in abbreviations, have been explained in the article Abbreviations (q. v.). On medals, it stands for many names of persons, as, Cæsar, Caius, Cassius, &c.; of officers, as, censor, consul; of cities, as, Carthago, &c.; also for cives, civitas, colonia, cohors, clypeus, castra, circensis. In the calendars and fusti, it denoted the days in which the comitia might be held. In trials, the opinions of the judges were given by writing on a little cube or die (tessera) the initial C, condemno, A, absolvo, or N L, non liquet. For this reason, Cicero (pro Mil. 6.; calls C, littera tristis, and A, littera salutaris.-C, in music; the name of that note in the natural major mode, to which Guido applied the monosyllable ut, but which has long since been relinquished by the Italians for that of do, as softer and niore vocal. C sometimes, in Italian music, stands for canto, as C 1. canto primo. It stands, likewise, when placed at the clef, for common time, and, with a line run through it perpendicularly, for cut time, or a quicker kind of movement.

CABAL; the infamous English ministry under Charles II (q. v.), which consisted of five men famous for their intrigues— Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, whose initial letters form

this word. (Burnet, Own Times, An. 1672 Some think the use of the word cabal, to denote an intrigue, or a body of intriguers, is derived from this circumstance. "Never," says Hume (ch. 65), “was there a more dangerous ministry in England, nor one more noted for pernicious counsels Ashley (more known as the earl of Shafiesbury), bold, ambitious, eloquent, insinuating, subtle, united great industry with a sound judgment of business and of men. Buckingham, with the advantages of a graceful person, high rank, splendid for tune, and a lively wit, but without prudence or principle, sacrificing, in turn, honor to interest, interest to pleasure, and pleasure to caprice, dissipated his fortune, and ruined his health, by his riot and debauchery, and destroyed his character, in public life, by his want of secrecy and constancy. Lauderdale, tyrannical, ambitious, implacable, insolent, yet abject, had a great ascendency over the king. Clifford, daring, impetuous, yet artful, and eloquent, and Arlington, of moderate capacity, without courage or integrity, were, secretly, Catholics. Shaftesbury was at once a deist, and addicted to astrology; Lauderdale a bigoted, and, earlier, a furious Presbyterian."

Cabal; a beverage made in Portugal, by bruising 20 pounds of raisins, and saturating them with white wine during 3 months. The mixture is rich, clear and agreeable.

CABALA, or CABBALA, (i. e. oral tradition), is used by the Jews to denote sometimes the doctrines of the prophets, sometimes the traditions of their ancestors. sometimes, and most commonly, their mystical philosophy. The opinions of scholars respecting the origin of the cabalistic philosophy are very various. The Jews derive the cabalistic mysteras from the most ancient times of their nation, nay, even from Adam himself. But, although a secret doctrine existed among the Hebrews in the earliest ages, this had reference merely to religious worship. The origin of the philosophical cabala is to be sought for in Egypt, and dates from the times of Simeon Schetachides, who conveyed it from Egypt to Palestine. It

was first committed to writing in the 2d century, that it might not be lost with the dispersion of the Jewish nation. Later expositors have mingled with it much foreign matter. The cabala is divided

into the symbolical and the real. The symbolical portion treats principally of letters, to which it gives mystical significations. The real, which is opposed to the symbolical, and comprehends doctrines, is divided into the theoretical and practical. The aim of the theoretical is to explain the Holy Scriptures according to the secret traditions, and to form therefrom a philosophical system of metaphysies, physics and pneumatology. The practical portion, on the other hand, pretends to teach the art of performing miracles, and that merely by an artificial application of the divine names and sentences in the Sacred Scriptures. After the revival of science, many scholars studied the cabala. The most famous modern cabalists are Henry Morus and Christian Knorr, the last of whom has made a compilation of the most important parts of the cabalistic writings, in two Latin volumes, in 4to. (Respecting the mysteries of the cabala, see Pet. Beer's History of the Doctrines and Opinions of all the Jewish Sects, and of the Cabala, Brúnn, 1822, 2 vols.; also Brucker's History of Philosophy, by doctor Enfield, vol. ii. Allen's Modern Judaism, ch. v.; and Buddæi Introductio ad Historiam Philosophia Hebræorum.)

CABANIS, Peter John George, physician, philosopher, and literateur, born at Cognac, 1757, went to Paris in his 14th year, and devoted himself with zeal to the sciences. In his 16th year, he went to Warsaw as secretary of a Polish lord. The proceedings of the stormy diet of 1773 filled him with melancholy and contempt of mankind. He began at Paris a complete translation of the Iliad. In Auteuil, near Paris, he became acquainted with madame Helvetius, and, through her, with Holbach, Franklin and Jefferson, and became the friend of Condillac, Turgot and Thomas. In his Serment d'un Médecin, he formally took leave of the belles-lettres. He professed the principles of the revolution, and was intimately connected with Mirabeau, who made use of his ideas, and obtained from him the work on public education, which Cabanis published himself, in 1791, after the death of Mirabeau. He lived in still closer intimacy with Condorcet. At the time of his death, May 5th, 1808, he was a member of the senate. His Rapports

du Physique et du Moral de l'Homme (Paris, 1802, 2 vols., improved in 1805), are highly esteemed. His works appeared in Paris, 1824, complete, in 4 vols.

CABARRUS, François, count of, born 1752, at Bayonne, was destined for commerce by his father, who sent him to a commercial friend, Galabert, at Saragossa, whose daughter he married in secret, against the will of both families, in 1772. His father-in-law, however, gave him the charge of a soap manufactory, near Madrid. The nearness of the city enabled him to become acquainted with several learned men and metaphysicians, as Olavides and the count of Campomanes. During the North American war, in which Spain took part against England, and was consequently cut off from her resources in America, C. advised the minister of the finances to make an issue of paper money, payable with interest, of which 10,000,000 piastres were put in circulation with the greatest success. He afterwards established the bank of San Carlos, 1782, and a company to trade with the Philippine islands. After the death of Charles III, in 1788, he fell into disgrace. In 1790, he was arrested; in 1792, released, and made a nobleman; and, in 1797, appointed minister plenipotentiary at the congress of Rastadt. He died in 1810, in the office of minister of finance, to which he had been appointed by Joseph Bonaparte. He had a daughter equally celebrated for beauty and talents.

CABBAGE. The cabbage, including many species of the numerous genus of brassica, is a biennial plant, too well known to need description, and constitutes one of our most valuable classes of vegetables. There are several species of the wild or original stock, from which the garden cabbage has been derived by cultivation. These are natives of various parts of Europe, Africa, &c., and, although very remote in appearance from the full, round head, which our plants present, are scarcely more so than are the kale, cauliflower, brocoli, &c., all of which belong to the cabbage family. In general terms, we may consider this plant as divided into three classes the common headed cabbage of the field and garden; the cauliflower, brocoli, &c., which form their stalks into a loose head; and the kale, colewort, &c., which grow in a natural branching way, without forming any heads at all. Of these, the common cabbage is by far the most valuable, both to man and to the beasts, by whose assistance he is able to make the earth so fer