(653). Internal disturbances obliged him to make peace. After this, he left Constantinople (659), and, in the following year, carried on an unsuccessful war against the Lombards in Italy, in which he lost his life, at Syracuse (660). Constantine IV, Pogonatus, son of Constans, vanquished his Syracusan competitor, Mezizius, and, in the beginning of his reign, shared the government with his brothers Tiberius and Heraclius. The Arabians inundated all Africa and Sicily, penetrated through Asia Minor into Thrace, and attacked Constantinople, for several successive years, by sea (669). Nevertheless, he made peace with them on favorable terms. But, on the other hand, the Bulgarians obliged him to pay a tribute (680). Justinian II, his son and successor, weakened the power of the Maronites (685), but fought without success against the Bulgarians (688) and against the Arabians (692). Leonitius dethroned this cruel prince, had him mutilated and sent to the Tauric Chersonese (695). Leonitius was dethroned by Apsimar, or Tiberius III (698), who was himself dethroned by Trebelius, king of the Bulgarians, who restored Justinian to the throne (705); but Philippicus Bardanes rebelled anew against him. With Justinian II the race of Heraclius was extinguished. The only care of Philippicus was the spreading of monotheisin, whilst the Arabians wasted Asia Minor and Thrace. In opposition to this prince, who was universally hated, the different armies proclaimed their leaders emperors, among whom Leo the Isaurian obtained the superiority (713-714). Leo repelled the Arabians from Constantinople, which they had attacked for almost two years, and suppressed the rebellion excited by Basilius and the former emperor Anastasius. From 726, the abolition of the worship of images absorbed his attention, and the Italian provinces were allowed to become a prey to the Lombards, while the Arabians plundered the eastern provinces. After his death (741), his son Constantine V ascended the throne-a courageous, active and noble prince. He vanquished his rebellious brother-in-law Artabasdus, wrested from the Arabians part of Syria and Armenia, and overcame, at last, the Bulgarians, against whom he had been long unsuccessful. He died (775), and was succeeded by his son Leo III, who fought successfully against the Arabians, and this latter by his son Constantine VI (780), whose imperious mother, Irene, his guardian and associate in the government, 31

VOL. II.

raised a powerful party by the restoration of the worship of images. He endeavored, in vain, to free himself from dependence on her and her favorite, Stauratius, and died in 796, after having had his eyes put out. The war against the Arabians and Bulgarians was long continued ; against the first it was unsuccessful. The design of the empress to marry Charlemagne excited the discontent of the patricians, who placed one of their own order, Nicephorus, upon the throne (802). Irene died in a monastery. Nicephorus became tributary to the Arabians, and fell in the war against the Bulgarians (811). Stauratius, his son, was deprived of the crown by Michael I, and he, in turn, by Leo IV (813). Leo was dethroned and put to death by Michael II (826). During the reign of the latter, the Arabians conquered Sicily, Lower Italy, Crete and other countries. He prohibited the worship of images; as did also his son Theophilus. Theodora, guardian of his son Michael III, put a stop to the dispute about images (841). During a cruel persecution of the Manichæans, the Arabians devastated the Asiatic provinces. The dissolute and extravagant Michael confined his mother in a monastery. The government was administered, in his name, by Bardas, his uncle, and, after the death of Bardas, by Basil, who was put to death by Michael (867). Basil I, who came to the throne in 867, was not altogether a contemptible monarch. He died 886. The reign of his learned son, Leo V, was not very happy. He died 911. His son, Constantine VIII, Porphyrogenitus, a minor when he succeeded his father, was placed under the guardianship of his colleague, Alexander, and, after Alexander's death, in 912, under that of his mother, Zoe. Romanus Lakopenus, his general, obliged him, in 919, to share the throne with him and his children. Constantine subsequently took sole possession of it again, and reigned mildly, but weakly. His son Romanus II succeeded him in 959, and fought successfully against the Arabians. To him succeeded, in 963, his general Nicephorus, who was put to death by his own general, John Zimisces (970), who carried on a successful war against the Russians. Basil II, son of Romanus, succeeded this good prince. He vanquished the Bulgarians and the Arabians. His brother, Constantine IX (1025), was not equal to him. Romanus III became emperor (1028) by a marriage with Zoe, daughter of Constantine. This dissolute but able

princess caused her husband to be executed, and successively raised to the throne Michael IV (1034), Michael V (1041) and Constantine X (1042). Russians and Arabians meanwhile devastated the empire. Her sister Theodora succeeded her on the throne (1053). Her successor, Michael VI (1056), was dethroned by Isaac Comnenus in 1057, who became a monk (1059). His successor, Constantine XI, Ducas, fought successfully against the Uzes. Eudocia, his wife, guardian of his sons, Michael, Andronicus and Constantine, was intrusted with the administration (1067), married Romanus IV, and brought him the crown. He carried on an unsuccessful war against the Turks, who kept him for some time prisoner. Michael VII, son of Constantine, deprived him of the throne (1071). Michael was dethroned by Nicephorus III (1078), and the latter by Alexius I, Comnenus (1081). Under his reign the crusades commenced. His son, John II, came to the throne (1118), and fought with great success against the Turks and other barbarians. The reign of his son, Manuel I, who succeeded him (1143), was, also, not unfortunate. His son, Alexius II, succeeded (1180), and was dethroned by his guardian, Andronicus, as was the latter by Isaac (1185). After a reign disturbed from without and within, Isaac was dethroned by his brother, Alexius III (1195). The crusaders restored him and his son, Alexius IV; but the seditious Constantinopolitans proclained Alexius V, Ducas Murzuphlus, emperor, who put Alexius IV to death. At the same time, Isaac II died. During the last reigns, the kings of Sicily had made many conquests on the coasts of the Adriatic. The Latins now forced their way to Constantinople (1204), conquered the city, and retained it, together with most of the European territories of the empire. Baldwin count of Flanders was made emperor, Boniface marquis of Montferrat obtained Thessalonica as a kingdom, and the Venetians acquired a large extent of territory. In Attalia, Rhodes, Philadelphia, Corinth and Epirus, independent sovereigns arose. Theodore Lascaris seized on the Asiatic provinces, bore the title of emperor at Nice, and was, at first, more powerful than Baldwin. A descendant of the Comneni, named Alexius, established a principality at Trebisond, in which his great-grandson John took the title of emperor. Neither Baldwin nor his successors were able to secure the tottering throne. He himself died in captivity,

among the Bulgarians (1206). To him succeeded Henry, his brother, with Peter, brother-in-law of Henry, and his son Robert (1221). With the exception of Constantinople, all the remaining Byzantine territory, including Thessalonica, was conquered by John, emperor of Nice. Baldwin II, brother of Robert, under the guardianship of his colleague, John Brienne, king of Jerusalem, died in 1237. Michael Palæologus, king of Nice, conquered Constantinople in 1261, and Baldwin died in the West, a private person. The sovereigns of Nice, up to this period, were Theodore Lascaris (1204); John Ducas Patatzes, a good monarch and successful warrior (1222); Theodore II, his son (1259), who was deprived of the crown by Michael Palæologus (1260), In 1261, Michael took Constantinople from the Latins. He labored to unite himself with the Latin church, but his son, Andronicus II (1282), renounced the connexion. Internal disturbances, and foreign wars, particularly with the Turks, threw the exhausted empire into confusion. Andronicus III, his grandson, obliged him to divide the throne (1322), and, at length, wrested it entirely from him. Andronicus died a monk (1328). Andronicus IV, who ascended the throne in the same year, waged war unsuccessfully against the Turks, and died 1341. His son John was obliged to share the throne with his guardian, John Cantacuzene, during 10 years. The son of the latter, Matthew, was also made emperor. But John Cantacuzene resigned the crown, and Matthew was compelled to abdicate (1355). Under the reign of John, the Turks first obtained a firm footing in Europe, and conquered Gallipolis (1357) The family of Palæologus, from this time, were gradually deprived of their European territories, partly by revolt, partly by the Turks. The sultan Amurath took Adrianople (1361). Bajazet conquered almost all the European provinces except Constantinople, and obliged John to pay him tribute. The latter was, some time after, driven out by his own son, Andronicus, who was succeeded by his second son, Manuel (1391). Bajazet besieged Constantinople, defeated an army of western warriors, under Sigismund, near Nicopolis (1396), and Manuel was obliged to place John, son of Andronicus, on his throne. Timur's invasion of the Turkish provinces saved Constantinople for this time (1402). Manuel then recovered his throne, and regained some of the lost provinces from the contending sons

of Bajazet. To him succeeded his son John (1425), whom Amurath II stripped of all his territories except Constantinople, and extorted a tribute from him (1444). To the emperor John succeeded his brother Constantine. With the assistance of his general, the Genoese Justinian, he withstood the superior forces of the enemy with fruitless courage, and fell in the defence of Constantinople, by the conquest of which, May 29, 1453, Mohammed II put an end to the Greek or Byzantine empire. In 1461, David Comnenus, emperor of Trebisond, submitted to him, and, at a subsequent period, was put to death. (See Comneni.)

BYZANTINE HISTORIANS; a series of Greek authors, whose works relate to the history of the lower Greek empire, from the fourth century until the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, and to the Turkish history until the end of the 16th century. These authors display the faults of a degenerate period; but they contain, also, the relics of former excellence. They are the principal source of the history of the decay of the Roman empire, and a correct delineation of the condition and character of the modern Greeks requires an intimate acquaintance with them, of which D'Anse de Villoison is an example. They contain, besides, an inexhaustible store of materials relative to the great migration of the nations, and the new political system to which it gave rise in the north of Asia and in Europe, and illustrative of ecclesiastical history. These too much neglected authors have been collected in an edition, published at Paris-Corpus Scriptorum Historia Byzantina (Paris, royal press, 1645-1702, 23 vols.); reprinted at Venice, with a different arrangement of the works (1729-1733), and explained by several French scholars, particularly by Du Cange, who have rendered great service by their commentaries and glossaries. These collections, however, are rarely to be found complete. Hase has enlarged the list of these writers, by his edition of Leo Diaconas (Leonis Diaconi Caloensis Historia, etc., e Bibl. Regia nunc primum in Lucem edid. ill. C. B. Hase, Paris, 1819, folio), which, in form and the value of the contents, approaches the great Paris edition. He has promised, also, to publish Psellus. Stritter, keeper of the royal archives at Moscow, under Paul, has proved, by an excellent extract (Memoria Populorum ad Danubium, Pontum Euxinum, Paludem Maotidem, Mare Caspium et inde magis ad Septentrionem Incolentium, Petersb., 1771-79, 4 vols., 4to.), their im

portance as sources of ancient Russian history. Four of them form a continued history of the Byzantine empire to the year 1470, viz.: 1. Zonaras; 2. Nicetas Aeominatus Choniates; 3. Nicephorus Gregoras; 4. Laonicus, or Nicholas Chalcondylas of Athens. The other authors, who have treated only single parts of the Byzantine history, are almost all to be found in the Corpus Byzantinum, which appeared at Paris, in 1648, from the royal press, in three splendid folio volumes. The most remarkable among these are in chronological order: 1. Procopius of Casarea, rhetorician at Constantinople. We have from him eight books of histories, viz., Persica, in four books, and Gothica, in four books, published separately by Höschel (Augsburg, 1607); and Secret History (Anecdota), in nine books (in which, contrary to the opinions expressed in his first work, he shows himself very inimical to the emperor Justinian), pub lished by Reinhard, at Erlangen and Leipsic (1753).—2. Agathias, after the death of Justinian, wrote an account of his reign, in five books, published at Paris (1660, folio).-3. Theophylact of Egypt. We have from him a history of the emperor Maurice, in eight books, to 604 (Paris, 1644).-4. Nicephorus, patriarch of Constantinople, who has left several learned theological writings. His Breviarium Historicum extends from the death of the emperor Maurice to 770 (Venice, 1759).—5. Joh. Scylitzes held several offices at Constantinople. We have from him an abridgment of history, from 811 to the time of Isaac Comnenus (1057.) It appeared in a Latin translation (Venice, 1570). The same work he continued to the time of Alexander Comnenus, 1081. The continuation is yet in manuscript.-6. Anna Comnena, daughter of the emperor Alexius I, died about 1150. She wrote an Alexias, or a work on the history of her father, Alexius Comnenus, in 15 books, edited by Höschel in Augsburg, 1610. (A more complete edition, Paris, 1651, folio). -7. George Acropolita, a statesman in Constantinople, wrote an abridgment of the Byzantine history, from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins, 1204, to its recapture, 1260 (Paris, 1651).-8. George Pachymer held high offices in church and state in Constantinople. He wrote Byzantine History, in thirteen Books, from the Birth of Michael Palæologus, 1158, to 1308 (Frankfort, 1568, folio).—9. John Cantacuzenus, the emperor, is the author of Byzantine History, in four Books, from 1320-54 (Paris, 1645).—10. George Co

dinus, intendant of the palace in Constantinople. We have from him several works on the antiquities of Constantinople. The most important of them is On the Offices and Services appertaining to the Court and the Church of Constantinople (Paris, 1648, folio).-11. Constantinus Porphyrogennetus, or Porphyrogenneta, emperor, wrote the life of his grandfather Basilius Macedo, edited by John Meursius. We have also a work of his on government, written for his son, and on the provinces of the Eastern and Western Empire, besides other writings and collections. The most important treats of the ceremonies of the Byzantine court. It was edited by Leich and Reiske (Leipsic, 1751-54, 2 vols.). 12. After the capture of Constantinople, Ducas wrote a Byzantine history, from 1341 to the capture of Lesbos, 1462.-13. Anselm Banduri, a Benedictine monk, left an extensive work on the antiquities of Constantinople, in which several works of more ancient writers are contained. 14. Peter Gilles. From him we have three books on the Thracian Bosphorus, and four books on the topography and antiquities of Constantinople.-15. Zosimus wrote a Roman history, in six books, from Augustus to Honorius. This work is of particular importance for the later epochs; published by Reitmeyer (Leipsic, 1784).-16. George Phranza died, after the capture of Constantinople, in a monastery of Corfu. We have from him a chronicle of the Byzantine history, in four books, from 1401-77, published by Alter (Vienna, 1796).

A new and highly-improved edition of this important collection was commenced, in 1828, by that distinguished scholar, Mr. Niebuhr, to be published by Weber, the well-known bookseller at Bonn in Germany. Three volumes of this edition, in octavo, have been received in the U. States, and will fully justify the high expectations entertained by the learned of this Herculean undertaking. By a singular concurrence of circumstances, the college at Cambridge, Massachusetts, happens to be possessed of a valuable manuscript of one of the Byzantine historians, Michael Glycas, which, as we are informed by a gentleman who has cursorily examined it, appears never to have been collated, and will furnish several various readings of importance in the emendation of the text. This MS. is one of a number purchased in Constantinople, and brought to the U. States by the Hon. Edward Everett, in the year 1819, and a particular account of which is given by him in the

Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. 4, p. 413. It is on parchment, and is supposed to have been written as early as the 13th century. A collation of it is now begun, as we are informed, for the purpose of being transmitted to the learned editor in Germany.

BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART. After Constantine the Great had made the ancient Byzantium the capital of the Roman empire, and ornamented that city, which was called after him, with all the treasures of Grecian art, a new period commenced in the history of art. From this time it became subservient to Christianity, as the religion of the state. All the productions of heathen artists, which formed suitable ornaments for Christian cities and temples, were now employed in the service of the invisible God, and art began, by slow degrees, to rise from its degeneracy, under the influences of Christianity. At the time when Constantine converted Byzantium into an imperial residence, splendor and ornament had already supplanted the simplicity of ancient taste. Asiatic luxury had become predominant, and this laid more stress on richness of material and decoration than on purity of conception. Architecture, which adorned the forum Augusteum, in Byzantium, with a fourfold colonnade, and created splendid curia, imperial palaces, baths, theatres and porticoes, preserved, for a long time, the grand forms of classic times, and deviated from them slowly and gradually, at first in the Christian churches, as a model for which Justinian built the church of St. Sophia, and decorated it with Oriental magnificence, in 537. But, even in architecture, the costliness and color of the marble was soon considered as of more importance than the proportion of the parts and the distribution of the columns. There are, however, as late as the ninth century, admirable works of Greek architecture, particularly those of Theodosius the Great and Justinian. This period was still less favorable to the simplicity of sculpture. The mythology of ancient Greece afforded sacred subjects to the statuary. Gods appeared in the human form, and the human figure, in the Grecian model, was raised to the classical ideal. On the introduction of the Christian religion, sculpture was confined to the imitation of nature; afterwards to portraits, and to mere purposes of ornament; for Christianity is averse to sensible representations of the Divinity. Statues of emperors, of great statesmen and generals, became the