high tides, often inundated vast extents of country, together with the change in the course of the Waal-stream and the canal of Pannerde, by which the beds of the Rhine, the Waal and the Leck were improved. He introduced into his department the use of the stream measure, so called. His many official duties permitted this worthy officer but seldom to appear as an author. Yet we find scientific essays written by him in the 14th, 19th and 20th volumes of the Memoirs of the Haerlem Society of Sciences, and some other pieces. He died in 1805. The directory of the then republic wished to erect a monument to him in the cathedral church at Haerlem; but it has never been completed, on account of the political disturbances that occurred soon after his death.

BRUNN; the capital of Moravia, and of a circle of the same name, which contains a population of 300,000, and is fertile in corn and flax. The population of the city, with the suburbs, is 33,300. It contains the government offices, the house for the meeting of the states, the palace of prince Lichtenstein, a gymnasium, many fine houses, &c. There are at B. several flourishing manufactures of fine woollen cloths and kerseymeres, one of which employs 5000 individuals. It is the centre of the Moravian commerce, a great part of which is carried on by fairs held at B. every three months. On a hill near it is the fortress of Spielberg, now used as a prison. Lat. 49° 11′ N.; lon. 16° 35 E.

BRUNO THE GREAT, archbishop of Cologne and duke of Lorraine, third son of Henry the Fowler, and brother of the emperor Otho I, had a great share in the events of his time, and surpassed all the contemporary bishops in talents and knowledge. A numerous train of learned men from all countries, even from Greece, continually followed him, and his excellent example was imitated by many prelates. He died at Rheims, Oct. 11,965. Commentaries on the five books of Moses, and the biographies of some saints, are ascribed to him.

BRUNO, St. Among several individuals of this name, the most famous is the one who established the order of Carthusian monks. He was born at Cologne, about 1030, of an old and noble family, which still flourished in the middle of the 18th century; was educated in the school of the collegiate church of St. Cunibert; in which, also, he afterwards received a canonship, and then studied at Rheims,

where he distinguished himself to such a degree, that Gervais, the bishop, appointed him to superintend all the schools of the district. He attracted many distinguished scholars, and, among others, Odo, afterwards pope Urban II. The immorality of his times induced him to go into solitude. He retired, therefore, with six friends of the same disposition, to the residence of St. Hugo, bishop of Grenoble, who, in 1084, led them to a desert, four or five leagues distant from the city, called Chartreuse, whence the order of monks received its name. Here, in a narrow valley, overshadowed by two steep rocks, covered with snow and thorns, B. and his companions built an oratory, and small, separate cells to dwell in, and founded, in 1086, one of the severest orders of monks. In the mean time, Urban II became pope, and, in 1089, invited his former instructer to his court. B. reluctantly obeyed, but refused every spiritual dignity, and, in 1094, received permission to found a second Carthusian establishment in the solitude of della Torre, in Calabria. Here he lived in his former mode, ruled his new colony with wisdom, and died in the arms of his scholars, A. D. 1101. Leo X, in 1514, permitted the Carthusians to celebrate a mass in honor of him; and Gregory XV, in 1623, extended it to the whole Catholic church. He was afterwards canonized. B. gave his scholars no particular laws. A complete set of regulations for the Carthusians was first formed A. D. 1581, and confirmed by Innocent XI.

BRUNO, or BRUNI (Brunus, Leonardo), of Arezzo, whence his name Aretino (Aretinus), was one of the most famous of the literati at the period of the revival of classic literature in Italy. He was born in 1370, and, in his childhood, was excited by the character of Petrarch, to the pursuit of those studies to which he consecrated his life. He first studied law at Florence and Ravenna; but the arrival of Emanuel Chrysoloras at Florence gave him a decided turn for classical learning. He afterwards filled many offices in the Roman Catholic church, and accompanied pope John XXIII to Constance, where the latter was deposed, and B. escaped to Florence. Here he wrote his Florentine History, received, in consequence, the rights of citizenship, and afterwards, by the favor of the Medici, became secretary to the republic. In this important post he died, A. D. 1444. Florence and Arezzo vied with each other in honoring his memory by splendid obsequies and mon

uments. The merits of B., in spreading and advancing the study of Greek literature, consist particularly in his literal Latin translations of the classics; for instance, the writings of Aristotle, the orations of Demosthenes, the biographies of Plutarch, &c. The other works on which his fame rests are, his Florentine History, also a history of his times, from 1378 to 1440, and his speeches. His collection of letters, also, is valuable. His writings are in the Latin language, with the exception of two biographies of Dante and Petrarch. His chief work is Historia Florentine (12 books, Strasb., 1610, folio), with which is connected the Commentarius Rerum suo Tempore Gestarum, published in Italian, at Venice, 1476, folio.

BRUNO, Giordano; a philosopher of the 16th century, distinguished by the originality and poetical boldness of his speculations; born at Nola, in the Neapolitan territory; entered the order of Dominicans; took refuge, probably, from the persecutions which he drew upon himself by his religious doubts and his satires on the life of the monks, at Geneva, in 1582, where, however, he was soon persecuted, by the Calvinists, for his paradoxes and his violence; stood forth, in 1583, at Paris, as the antagonist of the Aristotelian philosophy, and as teacher of the ars Lulliana. Here he found many opponents, went to London, returned to Paris, and, from 1586 to 1588, taught his philosophy at Wittenberg. Why he left Wittenberg is not known; but it is certain that he went, in 1588, to Helmstadt, and he seems to have visited Prague before that year. Protected by duke Julius of Wolfenbüttel, he remained in Helmstadt till his protector died, in 1589. He was then engaged, at Frankfort on the Maine, with the publication of some works, but left this city, also, in 1592, and returned (it is not known for what purpose) to Italy. He remained for some time at Padua in tranquillity, until the inquisition of Venice arrested him, in 1598, and transferred him to Rome. After an imprisonment of two years, that he might have opportunity to retract his doctrines, he was burnt, Feb. 16th, 1600, for apostasy, heresy, and violation of his monastic vows. He suffered death, which he might have averted, even eight days before, by a recantation, with fortitude. Whilst his violent attacks on the prevailing doctrines of the Aristotelian philosophy, and on the narrow-minded Aristotelians themselves, every where created him enemies, his rashness and pride threw him into the hands of his ex

ecutioners. His philosophical writings, which have become very rare, display a classical cultivation of mind, a deep insight into the spirit of ancient philosophy, wit and satire, as well as a profound knowledge of mathematics and natural philosophy. Most of them were published between 1584 and 1591, as appears from the enumeration of the oldest editions in the Bibliographical Lexicon of Ebert (Lps., 1821, quarto, vol. i, p. 238 et seq.). In 1584 appeared, at Paris, his famous Spaccio della Bestia trionfante (a moral allegory, with many satirical strokes on his own times), also his work De la Causa, Principio et Uno (Venice and London, 1584), besides De l'Infinito, Universo, et Mondi. The former contains the foundation, the latter the appli cation, of metaphysics to the natural world. The doctrine is a pure Pantheism, connected with truly dignified notions of God-a more complete Pantheistical sys tem than had been previously exhibited, and which, since his time, Spinoza only, who, like Descartes, borrowed his ideas, has carried to a greater perfection. The notion that God is the soul of the universe, and the world endowed with or ganization and life, might have been forgiven by his contemporaries; but his inference that the world is infinite and immeasurable, and his doctrine of the plurality of worlds, at the moment when the new system of Copernicus was at tacked from all quarters, could not but be looked upon as a crime. His writings are mostly in the form of dialogues, with out any methodical order. His language is a strange mixture of Italian and Latin. His style is violent and fiery. The originality and loftiness of his ideas take a powerful hold on those who can understand him. His logical writings, in which he boldly and skilfully applies Raymond Lully's art of topical memory, are more obscure and less interesting. His belief in magic and astrology, notwithstanding his enlightened views of the nature of things, is to be attributed to the spirit of his age. He has also written poems, Heroici Furori, and, among others, a comedy, Il Candelajo. The most eminent philosophers since his time have borrowed much from him. Among recent writers, Schelling resembles him the most in his metaphysics and his philosophical views of nature, and has given his name to one of his philosophical writings (Bruno, oder über das göttliche und natürliche Princip der Dinge, Berl., 1802). On Bruno and his writings, see Sieber's

even in foreign countries. B., the capital, is the centre of trade. The country is provided with good roads.

BRUNSWICK, capital of the duchy of the same name, is situated on the Ocker, and contains 3041 houses, with 32,500 inhabitants. It was formerly one of the free cities of Germany, but it is now subject to the duke, and has been the ducal residence since 1754. The principal buildings are the ducal palace, the mint, the house in which the diet assembles, the town-house, the arsenal and the cathedral, the public wine-cellars. The collegium Carolinum was founded in 1745, and intended as a medium between the common schools and the universities. It has enjoyed a high reputation even in foreign countries, particularly in England and Russia. The principal manufactures are wool, yarn, linen, porcelain, pasteboard, paper hangings and chemical preparations. The traffic in home produce, and the carrying trade, are of some consequence, and the great Brunswick fairs rank next to those of Leipsic and Frankfort. Lat. 52° 16′ N.; lon. 10° 29′ 30′′ E. BRUNSWICK; a post-town of Maine, in Cumberland county, on the south-west side of the Androscoggin, 26 miles N. E. of Portland; lat. 43° 53′ N.; lon. 69° 55′ W.; population, 2931. The falls of the Androscoggin, at this place, afford excellent seats for several mills and manufactories. Bowdoin college, in this town, was incorporated in 1794, and went into operation in 1802. It is pleasantly situated on an elevated plain, about half a mile from the Androscoggin, is a well endowed and flourishing institution, and has a medical school connected with it. The officers, in 1829, consisted of a president, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry and mineralogy, a professor of the learned languages, a professor of moral and intellectual philosophy.

BRUNSWICK, NEW. (See New Brunswick.)

BRUNSWICK, Charles William Ferdinand, duke of, was born in 1735. He was the eldest son of the reigning duke Charles of Brunswick and a sister of Frederic the Great. At the age of 7, his education was committed to the abbé Jerusalem, then chaplain to the court at Wolfenbüttel. At the age of 12, he entered, under the superintendence of Jerusalem, the collegium Carolinum, then recently established. His tutor was the chamberlain von Wittorf--a man of talents, but without principle. His ambi

tion was early kindled by the achievements of Frederic II. The seven years' war afforded him the first opportunity of cultivating his military talents. He commanded the Brunswick troops in the alled army, and, in the fatal battle at Hastenbeck, July 28th, 1757, in which he recaptured a battery that had been taken by the French in the centre of the allied army, "he showed" (such was the expression of Frederic) "that nature had destined him for a hero." June 23d, 1758, he decided the victory of Crefeld. He took the most active part in all the enterprises of his uncle Ferdinand; and Frederic's esteem for him continued to increase, as appears from his Geschichte des Siebenjährigen Kriegs (History of the Seven Years' War), and his Ode auf den Erbprinzen von Braunschweig (Ode on the hereditary Prince of Brunswick). In 1764, he married the princess Augusta of England. Having early become acquainted with the real situation of his native country, and drawn salutary instruction from the constant embarrassments of his father, before he entered upon the government, he practised the greatest economy, living mostly retired from public business, and devoted to the arts and sciences. In 1773, he entered the Prussian service, and became general of infantry, but had no opportunity of cultivating his military talents. After the death of his father (in 1780), he entered upon the government with zeal and activity. Anxious above all for the improvement of the finances, he diminished his household, discharged the debts of the state, encouraged agriculture, extended the liberty of commerce, undertook or assisted in the erection of considerable buildings, and, by causing Italian operas, masquerades, &c. to be exhibited gratis, provided also for the amusement of the public. Yet, with the best intentions, he was often unsuccessful. This was the case with his plans for the improvement of public education. He invited men of learning into the country at great expense, but, the projected refor mation having met with innumerable obstacles, they became a burthen to the state. In 1787, he was obliged to place himself at the head of a Prussian army for the support of the stadtholder of Holland. The facility with which this cam paign was terminated procured the duke more reputation than he perhaps deserved. High expectations were entertained of him when the wars of the French revo lution broke out. The duke received the chief command of the Austrian and Prus

sian army, and issued at Coblentz, July 15, 1792, the famous manifesto, drawn up in a very harsh and haughty style by a Frenchman, De Limon. It certainly did more injury to the allied forces than a hostile army could have done. It inflamed the French nation almost to fury against the insolent conquerors, who intended "to make every city, that dared to resist, level with the ground, and to cut their way to Paris." The emperor Francis approved it, and so did the king of Prussia; but the duke considered the expressions too strong. The severest passages were expunged; but its tone was still very insolent. The duke designed to press forward from Lorraine to Paris, to cut off its supplies, and thus to force it to surrender by famine. Aug. 23, 1792, Longwy was taken, and, Sept. 2, Verdun. But, in Champagne, a country of itself unproductive, the transport of provisions for the army from the frontiers was rendered difficult by mountains and forests. Dumouriez was encamped in the vicinity of St. Menehould, and skirmishes took place daily; but Dumouriez, not willing to hazard the fate of France, and foreseeing that the Germans would be forced to retreat by want and disease, avoided a decisive action, notwithstanding the efforts of the enemy to provoke him to it. The Germans were, therefore, obliged to conclude an armistice, and to evacuate Champagne. Custines took Worms and Spire during this retreat, and, Oct. 21, captured the fortress of Mentz, and soon afterwards Frankfort, which latter city, however, was retaken by the Prussians and Hessians Dec. 2. The endeavors of the Germans, therefore, were principally directed to the recapture of those places. To this end the duke, in conjunction with the Austrians, opened the campaign on the Upper Rhine in 1793, took the fortress of Königstein March 7, conquered Mentz July 22, and prepared to attack the strong fortress of Landau, then in the power of the French. The French, on the other hand, Sept. 14, made a general attack on the duke and Wurmser, from Strasburg to Saarbrück. On that day, the duke had a sanguinary engagement with Moreau, in the vicinity of Pirmasens, a town belonging to the landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt. The French were driven from their camp near the village of Hornbach, as far as to the Saar. A month later, the duke, having formed a union with Wurmser, succeeded, Oct. 13th, in his attack on the lines of Weis

senburg, and his attempt to draw nearer to Landau. In order to gain another strong point of support, he ventured, on the night of Nov. 16, to make an assault upon the mountain-fortress of Bitsch, which is the key of the Vosges, as the roads from Landau, Pirmasens, Weissenburg and Strasburg unite at that place. This attempt miscarried. Between the 28th and the 30th of November, however, he defeated a division of the army of the Moselle, at Lautern, which was pressing through the mountains, under the command of Hoche, with the intention of relieving Landau. But the daily attacks of Hoche and Pichegru, without regard to the sacrifice of men, and the successful attempt of the latter to break the Austrian lines near Froschweiler, Dec. 22, forced the Austrians to retreat beyond the Rhine, and occasioned the retreat of the duke also. As some difficulties had already risen between Austria and Prussia, he laid down the chief command of the army in the beginning of the year 1794. Möllendorf was his successor. The duke continued to labor for the welfare of his country until the fatal year 1806. Although he was now of such an age that he might have retired without reproach from public life, yet he assumed burthens beyond his powers. At the beginning of the year 1806, commissioned by the king of Prussia, he made a journey to Petersburg relative to the war that soon broke out with France. He was then placed at the head of the Prussian army. But his physical strength was not equal to his moral energy, as was proved by the battles of Jena and Auerstädt. (q. v.) He was mortally wounded, and closed his life at Ottensen, near Altona, Nov. 10, 1806. As a civil ruler, he was distinguished for good intentions; yet the want of consistency, which is evident in most actions of his life, may have been the cause of the many failures of his benevolent purposes. The duke's subjects were also offended by his foreign partialities, particularly his fatal inclination for the French nation, which had been instilled into him by Frederic II.

BRUNSWICK, Ferdinand, duke of, born at Brunswick, Jan. 11th, 1721, fourth son of duke Ferdinand Albert, was educated for the military profession. In 1739, he entered into the Prussian service, was engaged in the Silesian wars, and became one of the most eminent generals in the seven years' war. He commanded the allied army in Westphalia, where, always opposed to superior forces, he displayed