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Byzantine art is characterized by elliptical curved outlines, acute-pointed and broad-toothed leaves, and thin continuous foliage springing from a common stem. In sculpture the leaves are beveled at the edge, and deeply channeled throughout, and drilled, at the several springings of the teeth, with deep holes. Thin interlaced patterns are preferred to geometrical designs; animal or other figures are sparingly introduced in sculpture, while in color they are principally confined to subjects of a holy character. Rome, Syria, Persia, and other countries, all took part as formative causes in the Byzantine style of art and its accompanying decoration. The character of the Byzantine school is strongly impressed on all the earlier works of Central and even Western Europe, which are generally termed the Romanesque or Romanized style, which is considered a fantastic and debauched style when applied to architecture. The geometrical mosaic work of Byzantine art belongs particularly to the Romanesque period, especially in Italy. This art, which flourished principally in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, consists in the arrangement of small diamond-shaped pieces of glass into a complicated series of diagonal lines. Marble mosaic work differs from the glass only in the material used.

The influence of Byzantine art was all powerful in Europe from the sixth to the eleventh century, and even later; and it has served in a great degree as the basis of all the modern schools of decorative art in the East and in Eastern Europe.

VIII. ARABIAN ORNAMENT.

As every distinct form or mode of civilization has been characterized by its own peculiar style of art, so when the religion of Mohammed spread with astonishing rapidity over the East about the middle of the seventh century, and over Spain in the early part of the eighth, a new style of art arose, which gradually encroached, in those regions, upon the already waning glories of the Byzantine period.

Some of the Arabian mosques of Cairo, erected in the ninth century, remarkable alike for the grandeur and sim

plicity of their general forms, and the refinement and elegance of their decoration, are among the most beautiful buildings in the world. Their elegance of ornamentation was probably derived primarily from the Persians, perhaps modified by Byzantine influence. In their leafage ornaments we observe traces of Greek origin, especially in the modified form of the acanthus leaf; but they abandoned the principle of leaves growing out one from another, and made the scroll continuous without break, while they retained that universal principle of true art, the radiation of lines from a parent stem, and their tangential curvature. Like the Romans, they covered the floors of their public buildings with mosaic patterns arranged on a geometrical plan; but it is surprising that, while the same pattern forms of mosaics exist in Roman, Byzantine, Arabian, and Moorish art, the general style of each differs widely from all the others. It is like the same idea expressed in four different languages. The twisted cord, the interlacing of lines straight or curved, the crossing and interlacing of two squares, and the equilateral triangle within a hexagon, are the starting-points in each.

What is called Arabesque ornament consists of a fanciful, capricious, and ideal mixture of all sorts of figures of men and animals, both real and imaginary; also all sorts of plants, fruit, and foliage, involved and twisted, and upon which the animals and other objects rest. The Arabians did not originate this style, although it is named from them; and in pure Arabesque, figures of animals are excluded, as they were forbidden by the Koran.

It is strange that while the Arabians have left traces of fine Saracenic art all through Northern Africa, and in Spain, scarcely a vestige of it can now be found in their native country, Arabia.

IX. TURKISH ORNAMENT.

Although the Turks and the Arabians have the same religion, yet, being of different national origin, their art representations are, as might be expected, somewhat different. The architecture of the Turks, as seen at Constantinople,

is mainly based upon the early Byzantine monuments, except their modern edifices, which are designed in the most European style. Their system of ornamentation is of a mixed character- Arabian and Persian floral ornaments being found side by side with debased Roman and Renaissance details. The art instinct of the Turks is quite inferior to that of the East Indians. The only good examples we have of Turkish ornamentation is in Turkey carpets; and these are chiefly executed in Asia Minor, and most probably not by Turks. The designs are thoroughly Arabian. The Turk is unimaginative.

X. MORESQUE OR MOORISH ORNAMENT.

In the ornamental art of the Moors, who established the seat of their power in Spain during the eighth century, we have another illustration of the results produced by corresponding influences of religious faith and diversities of national character. The main differences between the Arabian and Moorish edifices consist in this: that the former are distinguished most for their grandeur, the latter for their refinement and elegance. In ornamentation the Moors were unsurpassed; and in it they carried out the principles of true art, even beyond the attainments of the Greeks themselves.

Arabian and Moorish art were alike wanting in symbolism; but the Moors compensated for this want by the beauty of their ornamental written inscriptions, and the nobleness of the sentiments they expressed. To the artist these inscriptions furnished the most exquisite lessons in art; to the people they proclaimed the might, majesty, and good deeds of the king; and to the king they never ceased to declare that there was none powerful but God; that He alone was conqueror, and that to Him alone was ever due praise and glory. A law of the Mohammedan religion forbade the representation of animals, or of the human figure.

In the best specimens of Moorish architecture the decoration always arises naturally from the construction; and, although every part of the surface may be decorated, there is never a useless or a superfluous ornament. All lines

grow out of one another in natural undulations, and every ornament can be traced to its branch or root; and there is no such thing as an ornament just jotted down to fill a space, without any other reason for its existence.

The best Moorish ornamentation is found in the Alhambra, a celebrated palace of the Moorish kings, at Granada, in Spain. This immense and justly famous structure, of rather forbidding exterior, but gorgeous within almost beyond description, was erected in the thirteenth century; and much of it remains perfect at the present day. It has been said by a competent judge that "Every principle which we can derive from the study of the ornamental art of any other people is not only ever present here, but was by the Moors more universally and truly obeyed." And further, that "We find in the Alhambra the speaking art of the Egyptians, the natural grace and refinement of the Greeks, and the geometrical combinations of the Romans, the Byzantines, and the Arabs." The walls of the Alhambra were covered with a profusion of ornamentation, which had the appearance of a congeries of paintings, incrustations, mosaics, gilding, and foliage; and nothing could be more splendid and brilliant than the effects that resulted from their combinations. The mode of piercing the domes for light, by means of star-like openings, produced an almost magical effect.

XI. PERSIAN ORNAMENT.

The Mohammedan architecture of Persia, and Persian ornamentation, are alike a mixed style, and are far inferior to the Arabian, as exhibited in the buildings at Cairo. The Persians, unlike the Arabs and the Moors, mixed up the forms of natural flowers and animal life with conventional ornament.

XII. EAST-INDIAN ORNAMENT.

Numerous manufactures calculated to give a high idea of the ingenuity and taste of the people of British India appeared in the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, in London, in 1851. Among these were various ar

ticles in agate from Bombay, mirrors from Lahore, marble chairs from Ajmeer, embroidered shawls, scarfs, etc., from Cashmere, carpets from Bangalore, and a variety of articles in iron inlaid with silver. In the application of art to manufactures the East Indians exhibit great unity of design, and skill and judgment in the application, with great elegance and refinement in the execution. In these respects they seem far to surpass the Europeans, who, says Mr. Owen Jones, "in a fruitless struggle after novelty, irrespective of fitness, base their designs upon a system of copying and misapplying the received forms of beauty of every bygone style of art." All the laws of the distribution of form which are observed in the Arabian and Moresque ornaments are equally to be found in the productions of India, while the coloring of the latter is said to be so perfectly harmonized that it is impossible to find a discord. This, of course, refers to the selected articles placed on exhibition in 1851.

XIII. HINDOO ORNAMENT.

We have but little reliable information about the ancient, or Hindoo, architecture of India; yet we know this much, that the Hindoos had definite rules of architectural proportion and symmetry. One of their ancient precepts, quoted by a modern writer, says, "Woe to them who dwell in a house not built according to the proportions of symmetry. In building an edifice, therefore, let all its parts, from the basement to the roof, be duly considered.”

The architectural features of Hindoo buildings consist chiefly of mouldings heaped up one over the other. There is very little marked character in their ornaments, which are never elaborately profuse, and which show both an Egyptian and a Grecian influence.

XIV. CHINESE ORNAMENT.

Notwithstanding the great antiquity of Chinese civilization, and the perfection reached in their manufacturing processes ages before our time, the Chinese do not appear to have made much advance in the fine arts. They show very

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