Ferrer subjected the observations to a new discussion, and obtained the result 8".615; and again, in 1815, to a very thorough discussion, which was posthumously published in 1832, from which he found for the value of the parallax 8".5770".3. The highest authority, however, and the one now followed, is the discussion of the late Professor Encke, of Berlin. In 1822 he published a volume containing a review and thorough discussion of the observations of the transit of 1761, June 6th, deducing the final value 8".4905-0′′.607. In 1624 he published a second volume containing a similar critical examination and discussion of the observations of the transit of 1769, June the 3rd. In this volume he makes a certain correction disregarded in the first volume, and finally obtains as the value of the equatorial horizontal parallax of the sun the following values:

The station at Wardhus, or Wardo Island, in the Arctic Ocean, at the northeastern extremity of Norway, was a very important one for the observation of the transit of 1769, and to this place, as has already been mentioned, Hell was sent. Numerous circumstances tended to throw suspicion on his published observations. Without stopping to detail everything that was afterwards discovered, suffice it to say that, in 1834, Prof. Littron, of Vienna, learned that some of the papers of Hell were in the possession of an Austrian gentleman. With a desire to obtain some clue to the Wardhus observations, Prof. Littron asked permission to consult them. This was not only granted, but all of Hell's MSS. were presented to the Vienna Observatory. Prof. Littron found among them Hell's astronomical note-book for the days June the 2d-4th, 1769. He found that the record of the original observations of the transit had been erased. Hewas only able to find two observations, one of ingress and the other of egress, upon which reliance appears warrantable. Hell substituted other figures, derived from calculation, for the original record. After obtaining these facts, Encke recomputed the solar parallax and obtained the final result from both transits, equal to 8".571160′′.0370, and this is the value now employed. It gives the mean distance of the sun from the earth 95,

360,000 412,000 miles; or the probable error is less than half a million of miles.

In 1824, Burg, following the footsteps of Mayer, deduced a value of the solar parallax from the Lunar Theory equal to 8".62. In the same manner La Place obtained 8".61; Pontécoulant, 8".63; Lubboch, 8".84 and 8".S1; Hansen, 8".88; Leverrier, 8".95.

As the reader will see, the results derived from all the methods mentioned give a somewhat uncertain value to the solar parallax, and the need of a more exact determination of this important element was for some time felt. The next transit of Venus will not take place till the year 1874, and it was thought advisable to try some other method by means of which the adopted value might either be confirmed or corrected. To effect this Dr. Gerling, of the Marburg University, proposed to make observations on the planet Venus about the period of her stationary points and retrograde motion, in opposite hemispheres (northern and southern) and nearly under the same meridian. Dr. Gerling wrote to Lieut. J. M. Gilliss in 1847, explaining his method and urging him to undertake observations for this purpose. After much correspondence, and two years spent in preparation, Prof. Gilliss finally set sail on the 16th August, 1849, of for the western coast of South America. A detailed account of the origin of the expedition, and many other things connected with it, will be found in the Introduction to the volume referred to, at the foot of page 16. After an absence of thirty-nine months, Prof. Gilliss reached home, having made the necessary observations, together with many others not having a direct bearing on the determination of the solar parallax. The mass of observations was placed in the hands of Dr. B. A. Gould, a young but able astronomer and mathematician; and he treated the subject in a most thorough manner, subjecting the whole series to a rigid scrutiny. From this discussion he deduced, as the value of the equatorial horizontal parallax of the sun, 8".5, a value a little less than that deduced by Encke from the transits of Venus, and corresponding to a distance from the earth of 96,160,000 statute miles.

The opposition of Mars in 1862 being favorable for the determination of his parallax,† Captain Gilliss determined

See vol. iii, p. iii, of the U. S. N. Ast. Exp. to Chili in South America. † See page 6.

to take the advantage of that circumstance, and invited the directors of different observatories to co-operate with him in making observations during the months of September and October of that year on his position. These observations give for the sun's parallax the value 8".8415, a result corresponding very nearly with that deduced by Subboch from the Lunar Theory. The error is supposed not to exceed one-tenth of a second of arc. This parallax corresponds to a distance of 92,400,000 miles. Experiments on the velocity of light made by M. Foucault give a parallax equal to 8".86; and similar experiments by M. Fizeau give 8′′.52.*

The mean height of the barometer is connected with the velocity of the earth's rotation, and with its velocity in its orbit, and hence with the distance of the sun. As yet, this method can only give a rough approximation to the distance of the sun, but it is valuable as affording the means, when the necessary observations accumulate, of corroborating the results of other methods. Pliny Earle Chase finds by this the mean distance of the sun to be about 91,000,000 miles.t This is the third method of finding the sun's distance without a knowledge of the parallax.

We thus see that several different methods give very nearly the same value of the sun's equatorial, horizontal parallax, and all future observations must be directed to the reduction of the small probable error which now exists in the most accurate determination of the sun's distance.

The next transit of Venus will take place in 1874, followed by another in 1882. All civilized nations will doubtless vie with each other in making accurate observations on so important a phenomenon; and, although the late late Professor Encke said that nothing but the utmost accuracy in the observations can compensate for the unfavorable circumstances of the transits as compared with that of 1769, yet we expect a more exact determination than any previous. Of the next two transits that of 1882 will be the most favorable one for the determination of the sun's parallax.

* Silliman's Journal, vol. xxxvi (1869), p. 171.

† Ibid. vol. xxxvii, p. 411.

ART. VIII.—1. Annual Reports of Insurance Companies for 1866. New York, Hartford, Boston, and Philadelphia.

2. Report on the Condition of the Sun Mutual Insurance Company, Albany: February, 1867.

In the original prospectus to our journal issued more than seven years ago, we promised our readers and friends that we would "fearlessly discuss every subject in which the public had an interest, and expose charlatanism and fraud in whatever forms they presented themselves." In accordance with this promise we gave that attention to insurance which we thought its importance claimed. We were, however, in no hurry to obtrude our views on the public; we had issued nine quarterly numbers before we uttered one word on the subject. In the meantime we exposed various systems of imposition, and criticised whatever seemed reprehensible to us in the working of several institutions, public and private. We did not thus postpone the consideration of Insurance for more than two years because we thought it less important to the public than the other subjects which we had discussed before it, but because it required more investigation and reflection. We were not the less impressed with the advisableness of this hesitancy from the fact that years previously we had made a careful study of the theory of insurance, although we have never been connected directly or indirectly with any company, in Europe or America.

Our first article on insurance, published in September number, 1862, was entitled "Quackery of Insurance Companies." We had the pleasure of seeing this copied by the newspapers in all parts of the country; at the same time we were subjected to the greatest abuse by the insurance papers which derived their chief means of subsistence from the very parties whose modus operandi we exposed. Not content with this the latter had attacks on us inserted in the form of advertisements in such of the morning papers as they could not bribe to lend them their editorial columns for that purpose. As a specimen of these advertisements our readers will perhaps, remember one which appeared in the "Daily Times" of this city a few days after the publication of the number containing the article alluded to. All this, however, did us much more good than harm, for the more our article was read by intelligent men the better it was liked, although many thought that we must have been mistaken in some particulars. None thanked us more warmly than the officers of insurance companies that were, and still are, honestly disposed. These, one and all, offered us every facility in their power to investigate the subject,. and expressed their regret that such an exposure had not been made years. earlier.

66

In this article we did not designate any company as fraudulent,* but this was not necessary in order to excite the ire of a large number who, from their writhings, showed but too plainly that the cap fitted them. We confess it surprised us not a little to find that among those who evinced most indignation towards us for our impertinence" was the President of the Sun Mutual Marine. When we went to him, as we did to other underwriters, to seek facts and statistics for our second article, he acted much more like a bully in an ale-house, than like a gentleman engaged in a respectable and honest business. Nor did we shrink from saying so at the time. Neither his boasted millions, nor his threats, deterred us from giving our impressions of himself and his company. Up to this time we had not concerned ourselves in any manner about one or the other; we knew no more about Mr. Grinnell, personally, than we did about the king of Ashantee, and we knew as little about "the Sun Mutual" as we did about the privy council of that despot. But feeling satisfied that there must be something wrong, we resolved to learn what we could and give the results to the public. What success we had will best appear from an extract or two. We take the following passage from our second article entitled "Insurance Quackery and its Organs."

"While he had been waiting to see the president, a messenger came to announce that a vessel insured by the company had been partly or wholly wrecked. If our memory does not fail us, the ship mentioned was the Planter. At once the president had it that she was a bad vessel; that she was not seaworthy-in short, everything was wrong with her! The captain, too, must have neglected his duty. Who was he? What other vessels had he commanded? or who had recommended him? &c. When our friend saw how he was treated he ventured to remark that he was surprised that the president of a company professing to have so large a capital could have induced him to occupy his time by calling on three different occasions, and then refuse to keep his word, because he did not get what he wanted cheaper than anybody else. 'I confess,' said he, that if I were insured by your company, I should have some fear in the event of the money falling due; for I am inclined to think that those who would quibble and "back out" for a matter of twenty or thirty dollars would be apt to give some trouble in case of twenty or thirty thousand dollars. If I am not right,' added he, then the remarks I have just heard in regard to the wrecked ship are somewhat inexplicable.' These may not have been the exact words used; but they are substantially the same. It struck us, who witnessed the scene, that if one of our most distinguished gladiators had been the president, and that his 'office' had been an oyster saloon in the Bowery, he could hardly have made a more prompt exhibition of his fighting propensities. He took care to confine himself to menaces and gestures, however, although our friend afforded him ample time to give vent to his fury before he turned on his heel to leave, wondering whether he could believe his eyes or his memory, that he was really in an insurance office in Wall street, and not in one of those places in our back streets where it is said one is liable to be knocked down any moment for attempting to express any opinion which happens to be distasteful to the master of the establishment or its patrons.

"After having witnessed such an exhibition as this, we were naturally curi

*The only company we mentioned at all was the New York Life, which we regarded then, as we do now, a model. Because we did so we were accused of having been bribed; although we have never received and never asked a cent for it.