according to which they lose more or less of the close applicability for which they were at first chosen, and are employed with whatever degree of incorrectness becomes convenient, to designate something in some way descended from or representing or related to the original thing, but not necessarily the same, or the like, in any strict sense.

Thus, as soon as the studia generalia, instead of immemorial usage, began to act under, or originated from, some express charter or grant, the meaning of the term studium generale, began to tend to become identical with that of universitas. At the end of the fifteenth cen

The charter of foundation of

tury, this was substantially the case. the university of Wittenberg, in 1502, defines the new institution as "a general study or university, or gymnasium, (studium generale sive universitatem aut gymnasium)." So, Duke Ludwig of Bavaria, thirty years before, in his charter to Ingolstadt, calls it a "university and school, (Universitet und Schuel)."

Before this period, the word universitas, when used of a corporation at a studium was joined with additional words showing what university was meant; and this of course, just as much as at present we should add the words to "society" or "corporation," to signify what sort of one was meant. Thus we have, of Vicenza, 1205, u. scholarum; of Paris, at sundry dates, 1209 to 1406, u. doctorum et scholarium, doctorum et discipulorum, magistrorum et scholarium, scholarium; of Toulouse, 1223, scholarium; of Bologna, 1235, same; of Oxford, 1250, same; and 1300, magistrorum, doctorum et scholarium; of Cambridge, 1268, scholarium; 1276, regentium et scholarium; 1486, studentium; of Reggio, 1276, scholarium; of Montpellier, 1289, same; Lisbon, 1290, same; Perugia, 1307, same; Prague, Paris, Vienna, Turin, Louvain, 1347 to 1425, studii.

But now, universitas had acquired a technical meaning, from its long use, in speaking of these most prominent and influential of all the different sorts of medieval universitates; and from about A. D., 1500, the various terms studium, studium generale, universitas, u. studii, u. studii generalis, academia, gymnasium, archigymnasium, Universität, and hohe Schule, began to be used quite indiscriminately, to designate what answered to the earlier studium generale with its included universitates, but what had by that time become substantially what the present European universities are.

Here the present historical discussion ends; for it is not now proposed to speak of the essence or powers of a university as now understood.

During the period of about six hundred and fifty years since A. D. 1200, all of which, except the last century, has been one of fanciful

ness in all manner of interpretation, various erroneous accounts have been given of the meaning of universitas.

It was derived, for instance, from the universality of the beneficent intentions of founders or teachers. That this was wrong, has been sufficiently shown in treating of the history of the word. That character, it is true, was the basis of the earlier term studium generale; but not of the legal term universitas.

It was derived, again, from the assumed universal scope of their field of instruction. This interpretation is, however, conclusively answered, not only by the same arguments as in the former case, but by the absurdity which its admission would imply, on the one hand, in the usual expressions of u. doctorum or scholarium, which necessarily refer its universityness to its human constituents, and on the other hand, and still more forcibly, in the equally common ones of u. juristarum, or artistarum, or theologiae, which phrases make nonsense, if we permit one of the words to apply the university to all things and the other to limit it to one, as much as to say 66 an institution for studying every thing, where they study nothing but law."

Again; both studium generale and universitas, were sometimes derived from the generality or universality of the currency of the degrees which they gave. Though not absurd, no reason appears in the text of early charters or authors, to support such a derivation, and it seems mere conjecture. The constant early use of accompanying words to define the constituents of universitas, seems positively to exclude the idea of its having had any other meaning than that of a collective body, organization, or corporation.

The true idea of the university as it has existed, will be developed in the history of a few of the more prominent institutions. The accounts of their historical development, various modes of action, and connection with the State and with educational systems, will afford materials for determining this question.

On the following page is given a list of some authorities on the earlier Italian and French universities.

AUTHORITIES ON FRENCH AND ITALIAN UNIVERTIES.

BERRIAT-SAINT-PRIX, HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT UNIVERSITY OF GRENOBLE (Historie de l'ancienne université Grenoble). 8vo. Paris, 1820.

BINI, VINCENZIO, HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PERUGIA, (Memorie istoriche della Perugina Università). 4to. Perugia, 1816. (Only Vol. I., then printed.)

BULAEUS, C. E., HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS, (Historia universitatis Parisiensis). 6 vols., folio. Paris, 1665-1673.

COLLE, F. M., HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF Padua, (Storia dello Studio di Padova). 4 vols., 4to. Padua, 1824–5.

CREVIER, HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS, (Historie de l'université de Paris). 7 vols., 12mo. Paris, 1761.

DU BREUL, JACQUES, THEATER OF PARISIAN ANTIQUITIES, (Théatre des antiquitez de Paris). Book II., on the University of Paris. Second edition, 4to. Paris, 1639. (First edition, 1612).

EGREFEUILLE, CHARLES D'., ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF MONTPELLIER, WITH A HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF ITS UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGES, (Histoire Ecclesiastique de Montpellier). This is volume two of his History of the city of Montpellier. 2 vols., folio. Montpellier, 1737-9.

FABBRUCCI, O. S. M., Fourteen papers on the University of Pisa, and its professors. In Calogerá's SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS, (Raccolta d' opuscoli scientifici e filologici). Published at Venice, 12mo., 1740-61; vols., 21— 51, and volume eight of new series, passim.

FABRONI, A., HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PISA, (Historia academiæ Pisance). 3 vols., 4to. Pisa, 1791-5.

FATTORINI, M., EMINENT PROFESSORS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA, FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, (De claris archigymnasiï Bononiensis professoribus, &c.) Folio. Bologna. Part I., of Vol. I., 1769; Part II., 1772. (Begun by M. SARTI).

ORIGLIA, G., HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES, (Istoria dello studio di Napoli). 2 vols., 4to. Naples, 1753-4.

PAPADOPOLI, N. C., HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PADUA, (Historia gymnasii Patavini). Folio. Venice, 1726.

PASQUIER, K. S., FRENCH RESEARCHES, (Recherches de la France). Book IX., chapters iii. to xxviii., on the University of Paris. In Vol. I., of his Works. Folio. Paris, 1723.

RENAZZI, F. M., HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY AT ROME, (Storia dell' universita, &c). 4 vols., 4to. Rome 1803-6.

RICCOBONUS, A., THE UNIVERSITY OF PADUA, (De Gymnasio Patavino). 4to. Padua, 1598. Also in the Thesaurus Italiæ, Vol. VI., Part IV.

SARTI, M. See FATTORINI.

SAVIGNY, F. C., HISTORY OF THE ROMAN LAW IN THE MIDDLE AGES, (Geschichte des Römischen Rechts im Mittelalter). Vol. III., pp. 152--419, and 609-718. Second edition. 8vo. Heidelberg, 1834.

TOMASINI, J. P., UNIVERSITY OF PADUA, (Gymnasium Patavinum). 4to. Udine, 1654.

IV. UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN.

I. FOUNDATION TO THE REFORMATION, 1477-1535.

THE universities of the middle ages were centers of influence not only upon learned studies, but upon all departments of intellectual activity. They had a decisive influence upon the formation of views in philosophy, theology, law and politics. Before the discovery of printing, and indeed for a short time after it, they were the ordinary means of intellectual intercourse, filling the place of the press, both in learned and in light current literature. They were also the organs of public opinion. But the education furnished by the universities was still by no means an education for the masses of the people. It was thoroughly aristocratic, and its recipients formed close corporations, which took rank by the side of the corporations of the clergy and nobility, as a privileged class; the degree of doctor, for instance, conferring the privileges of nobility. And like those other classes, the universities were at first by no means arbitrary creatures of political authority, but natural results of the mental activity of the period. They arose in consequence of the appearance of some beloved and influential teacher, around whom gathered a circle of scholars, which in turn attracted to itself other teachers and other scholars. Thus originated the universities of Paris, Bologna and Salerno. But all this was no longer the precise significance of a university, at the time when the German ones were founded. These latter were no more the natural outgrowth of the intellectual life of a nation, but arose only after the period of the bloom of the national intellectual life. Their essence is to a far less degree the mental life of their time; it is no longer the emperor of Germany who as such establishes the university, but the hereditary lord of a country, who directs the current of learning and education through separate canals in his own dominions. The first university which was founded in the German empire, that of Prague, is an instance of this. It was founded in 1348, by the emperor Charles IV., in his favorite city, after he had given up all hopes of gaining the German empire, and had withdrawn to his hereditary dominions, to establish his authority there on the basis which he preferred. After this example, several other universities were founded in German provinces, but all under

•Compiled from “Klüpfel's History," for the American Journal of Education.

the auspices of the immediate sovereign. Such were Vienna in 1365; Heidelberg in 1386, and Leipzig in 1408. The fifteenth in order of foundation is Tübingen, which was founded in 1477 by Count Eberhard of Wirtemberg, who was led to follow the example of other German princes, by his own opinion of the value of learned education, and by the influence of his accomplished mother Matilda, an archduchess of Austria, and of some of his council, especially Vergenhans, surnamed Nauclers, and Reuchlin. The decree of foundation, dated 3d July, 1477, thus speaks of his intention :

He has often considered how he might best set about some enterprise well pleasing to the Creator, and useful for the common good and for his subjects. He has arrived at the conclusion that he can begin nothing better or more pleasing to the eternal God than to prepare means for the instruction of good and zealous youths in the liberal arts and in learning, so that they may be enabled to recognize, fear, and obey God. This is better than to build magnificent churches and to found wealthy ecclesiastical institutions; for the best temple of God is the human heart, and the Creator takes more pleasure in the goodness and holiness of men than in splendid temples, which contribute but little to happiness; while the great object of moral training and elevation can in no way be better attained, than by means of instruction in learning. In this good belief he has determined to found a school for human and divine learning.

Count Eberhard also uses some remarkably noble expressions in the charter, dated 9th October, 1477. He says here, "In the good design of aiding to discover the well-spring of life, so that helpful and healthful learning, flowing thence in streams immeasurable to all the ends of the world, may work for the quenching of the destructive fires of human unreasonableness and folly, we have determined and undertaken to organize and establish a university in our city of Tübingen." As reasons for selecting Tübingen, he mentions the agreeableness and fruitfulness of the neighborhood, and the healthfulness of the air, as facts patent to all. One main reason also probably was that Tübingen was the principal city in his dominions.

As universities were properly ecclesiastical institutions, their legal establishment had to be confirmed by the pope. This had already been done, in the application of Count Eberhard, by Sixtus IV., by a bull of November 14th, 1476, promulgated at Urach on the 11th of March, 1477, before many of the lay and clerical notabilities of the country, by Heinrich Faber, abbot of Blaubeuren, as apostolical commissary. Here was read the papal act of foundation, which ordered the establishment of the university (allgemeines Studium) for every faculty and every allowed branch of learning, the erection of chairs. of instruction in every faculty, and the compilation of a constitution and statutes for the university. The chief object of the institution was set forth as the propagation of the orthodox faith; since by learned studies the soul's health is promoted, controversies are healed, peace and quiet induced, things permissible and forbidden distinguished,