their respective shares of the expenses, and appropriations were also made by the Government for the increase of teachers' salaries, accompanied, however, with the denial that the State could be expected to assume the expense of public instruction. Definite regulations were made respecting the organization of new school-districts, and the establishment of special classes of imperfectly organized (irregular) schools, such as local circumstances not unfrequently made necessary. Half-day schools were for the most part abolished; the condition of teachers, and especially of assistant teachers, was improved; and pensions for teachers and their families were strongly insisted upon. The normal school course was increased to two years, and special normal instructors were provided. The fourth class of the high schools was transferred to the burgher schools, while the change of trivial schools into three-class parochial high schools was commenced at Vienna and extended into other provinces. Afterwards, as the high schools were organized into four classes, three classes were required in the trivial schools. The separation of the sexes was required in the higher classes of the high schools, at least, and the establishment of distinct female schools was especially favored. The instruction of adults was more carefully regulated, attendance was made more obligatory, and provision was made for the compensation of the teachers. Private schools were relieved from many restrictions that custom had laid upon them, but they were still under strict government control. The normal schools were gradually improved, a course of training for female teachers and for teachers of burgher schools was introduced, and scholarships were established for the benefit of poor pupils. The employment of teachers who had received no preparatory training, though still at times necessary, had become less frequent.

The general usefulness of the German language was recognized by the Government, and its introduction was recommended, especially into the high schools. It also favored joint instruction in several languages in the schools and made the necessary rules for its regulation. The old text-books were removed and new ones prepared, not only in the German language but in the Bohemian, Polish, Ruthenic, Slovenic, Croatian, Servian, Italian, Romaic, and Magyar, and other books for German instruction in the non-German schools and for the special use of the Protestant and Jewish sects.

The greater influence of the community in the control of the school, as provided for in Feuchtersleben's plan, was considered a matter of less importance than the determination of its duty in relation to the support of the school. The participation of its representatives was limited almost entirely to the necessary action in securing this support, the direction of the school being still exercised by the local school superintendent, which office had been continued from the earliest period. The "concurrence," which was continued in force provisionally for some years, was gradually modified in favor of the lords of the estates, the increased obligations of the communities being in a measure counterbalanced by the improved rights of property consequent upon the new relations now established.

velopment of the intellectual faculties. Every book, therefore, which would aid in an analysis of the youthful mind, should be placed in the library of the proposed institution.

The human heart, the philosophy of its passions and its affections, must be studied by those who expect to influence those passions, and form those affections. This branch of the subject includes the government of children, especially in the earliest stages of their discipline. The success of the teacher here depends upon the good judgment with which he arranges and presents to his pupils the motives that will soonest move them, and most permanently influence their actions. The mistaken or wicked principles of parents and instructors, in this department of education, have, no doubt, perverted the dispositions of many hopeful children. If successful experience has been recorded, it should be brought to the assistance of those who must otherwise act without experience.

Lastly, the study of the philosophy of language would be essential to the scientific teacher. The term language is not here understood to mean a class of words called Greek, or another class of words called Latin, or even that class of words which we call English. It means something more general, and something which can hardly be defined. It embraces all the means we use to excite in the minds of others the ideas which we have already in our own minds. These, whatever they are, are included in the general definition of language. This is a great desideratum in our systems of education. We do not possess a language by which we can produce precisely the idea in a pupil which we have in our own mind, and which we wish to excite in his. And impatient and precipitate teachers quite often quarrel with their pupils, because they do not arrive at the same conclusions with themselves, when, if they could but look into their minds, they would find that the ideas with which they begin to reason, or which enter into their processes of reasoning, are altogether different. Every book or fact, therefore, which would do any thing to supply this desideratum, or enable the teacher better to understand precisely the idea which he excites in the mind of his pupils, should be collected in the instructor's library.

2. The institution should have its principal and its assistant professors. The government and instruction of a seminary for the education of teachers would be among the most responsible situations which could be assigned to men in literary or scientific pursuits. As many of the objects of the institution would be new, so the duties of its instructors would also be new. No commanding minds have gone before precisely in the proposed course, and struck out a path which others may easily follow. There are no rules laid down for the direction of those who will not think upon, or who cannot understand the subject. Men must, therefore, be brought to the task who have the ability to observe accurately and to discriminate nicely. They must also collect the results of what experience they can from books and from others, in order to enable themselves to form some general principles for the direction of their pupils, who will go abroad to carry their improvements to others. It is not supposed for a moment that all who may receive instruction at the proposed institution with the intention of becoming teachers, will necessarily be made thereby adepts in the science, any more than it is believed that all who happen to reside four years within the walls of a college are necessarily made expert in the mysteries of syllogisms and the calculus. But having seen correct general principles of education successfully reduced to practice, they may, at least, become artists in the profession, and be able to teach pretty well upon a system, the philosophy of which they cannot thoroughly comprehend.

3. A school of children and youth of different ages and pursuing different branches of study would form an essential part of the institution. In the early stages of the education of children, the discipline should consist almost wholly of such exercises as serve to develop the different faculties and strengthen all the powers of the mind. And in the subsequent education of youth, when the discipline comes to consist partly in the development of the mind, and partly in the communication of knowledge, the course of instruction would be the same, whether the pupil were destined to be a teacher or not. The objects of the institution do not, therefore, become peculiar till after the pupil has acquired & certain degree of freedom and strength of mind; nor till after he has made the acquisition of the requisite amount of knowledge for the profession of teacher.

Though a pupil would necessarily imbibe a good deal of clearness and method in his intellectual exercises by submitting the direction of them to a skillful instructor, the stu ly of the science of teaching cannot properly begin till he changes relations with those about him; and, instead of following a course prescribed by another, and exhibiting the powers of his own mind without an effort to take cognizance of them, he assumes to look down upon humbler minds, to direct their movements, and to detect and classify the phenomena of their subtle workings. After the young candidate for an instructor, therefore, has acquired sufficient knowledge for directing those exercises and teaching those branches which he wishes to profess, he must then begin his labors under the scrutinizing eyes of one who will note his mistakes of government and faults of instruction, and correct them. The experienced and skillful professor of the science will observe how the mind of the young teacher acts upon that of the learner. He will see how far and how perfectly they understand each other, and which is at fault if they do not understand each other at all. If the more inexperienced teacher should attempt to force upon the mind of a child an idea or a process of reasoning for which it was not in a proper state, he would be checked at once, and told of his fault; and thus, perhaps, the pupil would be spared a disgust for a particular study, or an aversion to all study. As our earliest experience would in this manner be under the direction of those wiser than ourselves, it would the more easily be classed under general principles for our direction afterward. This part of the necessary course in an institution for the education of teachers might be much aided by lectures. Children exhibit such and such intellectual phenomena; the scientific professor of education can explain those phenomena, and tell from what they arise. If they are favorable, he can direct how they are to be encouraged and turned to account in the development and formation of the mind. If they are unfavorable, he can explain by what means they are to be overcome or corrected. Seeing intellectual results, he can trace them, even through complicated circumstances, to their causes: or, knowing the causes and circumstances, he can predict the result that will follow them. Thus every day's experience would be carefully examined, and made to limit or extend the comprehension of the general principles of the science. Is there any other process or method than this to arrive at a philosophical system of education? If any occurs to other minds, it is to be hoped that the public may soon have the benefit of it.

4. The fourth branch, which I mentioned above as constituting an important part of an institution for the education of teachers, was a Board of Commissioners. Although they would, probably, have but little to do with the immediate government and instruction of the institution, they would be valuable to it by representing the wishes of the community, and by bringing it more perfectly in contact with the public interests. Besides, it must occur to every one, that in the general management of such an establishment, many of the transactions would require characters and talents very different from those that would, generally, be found in the principal or professors. Men might easily be found who would lecture to admiration, and yet be wholly incompetent to assume the general direction of the establishment. The professors, too, would always want assistance and authority in determining what acquisitions should be required for admission into the institution, and what proficiency should be deemed essential in the candidates before leaving it to assume the business of teaching. Upon what principles shall the school be collected? How shall the privilege of attending as new learners in the science of education be settled upon applications from different parts of the State or country? These and many similar questions would render a body of men, distinct from the professors, important to the institution. Many decisions, too, must necessarily be made, affecting individual and private inter ests. This would be an invidious duty, and the instructors should be relieved from it as far as possible. It is confidently believed that the peculiar advan tages to be enjoyed at such an institution by children and youth generally, as well as by those designed for teachers, would command a price sufficient to defray nearly the whole expenses of the establishment. If not so, then might not each town send one or more young men to the institution to be properly educated for instructors, and require them in return to teach their public schools to liquidate the expense? All these means, however, are subjects for future consider

ation, and are to be devised after the utility of the institution has been demonstrated.

The peculiar advantages of an institution for the education of teachers would be far too numerous and too important to be either embraced or enforced in the space which remains for this topic. A few, therefore, of the most obvious ones are all that can here be alluded to. One advantage, and a very certain one, would be to raise the character of teachers generally; and consequently, in the same degree, the character of the schools which they teach. Let us pause, for a moment, to consider to what an extent we are interested in every thing which affects our system of public instruction; and hence derive a motive, before we pass ou, to enforce attention to every suggestion for improvement in it.

There were in the district of Massachusetts, according to the census of 1820, five hundred and twenty-three thousand one hundred and fifty-nine souls. Of this number, two hundred and forty-one thousand seven hundred and eleven were under the age of eighteen years. The numbers have since been much augmented. If the population has increased only as fast since the last census as it did between the census of 1810 and that of 1820, there are now, in round numbers, about two hundred and fifty thousand children and youth in Massachusetts under the age of eighteen years. This, it will be perceived, amounts to almost one-half of the whole number of souls. If we take from the older those between the ages of eighteen and twenty-one, and add them to the younger part of the population, we shall find at least half, and probably more than half of the whole, under twenty-one years.

These are all flexible subjects of education, in its most comprehensive sense; though they are not all within the influence of that part of it which can be easily controlled by legislation, or indeed by any means except by an enlightened public opinion. A few of this great number have left the schools and all direct means of education, and entered upon the active business of life. And a portion of the younger part of them are yet subjects only for domestic education. But after these deductions from the two extremes, it will not be extravagant to state, that one-third of the whole population are of a suitable age, have opportunity, and do actually attend school some portion of the year. In Massachusetts we have not the means of knowing accurately the numbers of children and youth who attend our schools; because we have no system of returns to any public authority, by which such facts can be ascertained. But I am confirmed in the belief that the above is not an extravagant estimate, by two circumstances. One of them is, several towns have been carefully examined, and this is about the proportion of the population found in their schools. And the other is, official documents and acknowledged authorities from the neighboring State of Connecticut informs us that one-third of the population attend their free schools a part of the year. And probably the same would be found to be true of New York, as well as of the remainder of the New England States.

These are statistical facts. Others may reason upon them and draw what conclusions they can, about immigration, the future prospects of New England, her comparative influence in the Union, and the facilities she affords for a manufac turing district. They have been introduced here because they suggest motives stronger than any others, to enforce attention to our means of popular education. One-third of our whole population are now at that period of life when their principles and characters are rapidly forming. Habits, both moral and intellectual, are taking their direction, and acquiring the strength of age. In all this, the schools must have a deep influence. Both the degree and the kind of influence are, to a certain extent, within our control, and consequently depend upon our efforts. In twenty years, and surely twenty years are not beyond the ken of a tolerably clear-sighted politician, this part of our population will succeed to most of the responsible places and relations of their fathers. They must receive all that we have to leave for them. They must take our names, and attach to them honor or infamy. They must possess our fortunes, to preserve or disperse them. And they must inherit our free institutions, to improve, pervert, or destroy them. Here, then, are the strongest political motives, as well as paternal affection, urging upon us attention to all the means of forming correctly the characters of those who are to receive from us our choicest blessings. And what means within our control can be devised more efficient for this purpose, than

2. Sectarian Character.-Every school is essentially sectarian, with respect alike to its scholars, teachers, and superintendence, and schools attended by children of different religions are only permissible generally as a last resort and with the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities. Yet Protestant and Jewish children, where there is no school of their own to which they can be assigned, are obliged to attend the nearest Catholic school, and in want of any such, Jewish children attend the nearest Protestant or Greek school, attendance at school prayers and religious instruction being, of course, dispensed with. In like manner Protestant schools are attended by Catholic children. Aside from the Jews, each sect has nearly its proportionate number of schools; in Salzburg, Carniola, and the Tyrol, the Protestant population is too much scattered for the establishment of distinct schools, while in Upper Austria, Carinthia, and Galicia, and partially also in the Littorale and Styria, the Protestants have every where schools of their own, more in number than their ratio of the population would require, as in many cases the schools are necessarily small. In Bohemia and Moravia much of the Protestant population is scattered, and in Bukowina and Galicia their schools are mostly confined to the German and Hungarian colonies. The number of schools belonging to the Eastern Church is proportionately less, as this sect has but recently awakened to the importance of education. Until 1848, moreover, the Greek schools of Bukowina were under the control of the Catholic consistory, and their gradual transfer since into the hands of their own authorities has greatly promoted their increase.

3. Effect of Nationality.-The German race, wherever found within the Empire, is more careful than any other to take advantage of the means of public instruction afforded to its youth, and on the easternmost borders of Central European civilization the German colonists are still the principal supporters of the public schools. Towards the South the influence of this element gives place to that of the Italian. Among the branches of the great Slavonian family,the Czechish-Moravian has exerted the greatest influence upon the primary schools, followed by the Poles, and these again by the Slavenes, the Croats, the Ruthenes, and the Servians.

4. Compulsory Attendance.-The existence of a regular school makes obligatory the attendance of all children within its limits between the ages of six and twelve years, unless they have entered a higher institution or receive equivalent instruction at home. This obligation is not only general, but special to the school of the district within which the child resides, and, on the other hand, admission can not be denied to any child, no previous preparation can be required, nor can any degree of progress be made a condition of his continuance. In the larger cities transfer to other than the proper school requires only the consent of the school superintendent. Usually the coöperation of those immediately intrusted with the management of the school secures the required attend